17세기 ‘몽문 연대기’에 보이는 한국관련 기록의 비판적 검토

김장구 동국역사문화연구소 2016 동국역사문화연구소 학술대회지 Vol.- No.추계

13세기 중반부터 14세기 중반까지, 즉 고려 후기에 한국은 대몽골국(元)과 미증유 의 밀접한 관계를 맺었다. 그 과정에서 몽골인에게는 ‘고려양(高麗樣)’, 고려인들에게 는 ‘몽골풍[蒙古風]’이라고 일컬을 정도로 다양하고 깊은 역사?문화적 교류가 이루어졌 다. 그러나 14세기 후반 몽골[元]은 쇠약해지며 분열하였고, 한반도에서는 고려가 멸 망하고 조선왕조가 건립되면서 몽골과의 상호 교류 관계는 점차 소원해지게 되었다. 그런데, 17세기에 만주[淸]가 흥기하면서 몽골인들이 그들을 도와 중국[明]을 정복하 고 통치하는 데 중요한 일익을 담당하게 되었다. 이 과정에서 조선은 병자호란을 통 해 청의 복속을 받아들이게 되었으며, 직간접적으로 몽골과 다시 만나게 되었다. 한편 고려와 긴밀한 관계를 가졌던 몽골도 고려시대와는 달라진 상황에서 조선을 다시금 인식하게 되었다.

체벵(Čeveng)의 『몽골 소수민족지』 역주∙4(完) ― 알타이 오량하이, 하삭, 함니간 ―

김장구 중앙아시아학회 2023 中央아시아硏究 Vol.28 No.2

This article provides an annotated translation of the final part, ‘The Uriyangqai of the Altai, the Qasaγ, and the Qamniγan,’ from Čeveng’s Ethnography of Mongolian Minorities. The Uriyangqai of the Altai dwell along the slopes of the Altai Range. The region is rich in various animals, fish, and mineral resources, including gold. After gaining independence in 1911, the Uriyangqai came under the rule of the Mongolian nation. Following the establishment of the Mongolian People’s Government, they came to be administered by the aimag of Qobdu. Formerly using Todu script, they have recently been using only the Mongolian script. As for the present, the Uriyangqai of the Altai, raising cattle by transhumance, are able to live in prosperity. Those among them who live by the sources of the Bulγan River engage in farming. As for the origin of the Qasaγ, they belong to groups of Turkic extraction. With regard to their language, history and customs, they are not very different from the Qasaγ of Kazakhstan within the USSR. In their religious observances they follow Muhammad’s doctrine (i. e., Islam). Until recently they have been using the Arabic script. As for the reason why, at the beginning, they came up to this (=northern) side of the Altai, it is that they must have come in search of a spacious pastures because it became impossible to live on the other (=southern) side. They raise livestock during transhumance and live in felt yurts(isegei). The Yerüge River serves as the central living place for the Qamniγan. They travelled for thirty years from the Altai to the Yerüge. Because at present the Qamniγan dwell among the multitude of Mongols, they have forgotten their native language while adopting the Qalqa Mongolian language. Owing to their keen intelligence and quick understanding, the Qamniγan have recently managed to find work such as transporting firewood to the mine, or doing mining work. In general, the present-day Qamniγan live in Monglian felt yurts(isegei). Because of the predominance of animal husbandry, they cut grass for hay. They are neither very rich nor are they paupers. Their standard of living is uniformly average. As for their physique, it looks as if they have bodies that are stronger and sturdier than those of either Mongols or Buriyad.

대몽골국 초기 고려-몽골 간 물품 이동과 그 배경

김장구 이화여자대학교 이화사학연구소 2022 梨花史學硏究 Vol.- No.65

This paper analyzes the type and background of ‘goods’ sent by Goryeo to Mongol when Mongol Empire militarily pressured Goryeo to surrender in the early Yeke Monggol Ulus(1206-1259). Among the items sent to Mongol by Goryeo in the early Yeke Mongγul Ulus, precious metals such as gold and silver were continuously required throughout all periods and were taken most often. Textiles such as silk and cotton, furs such as otter skins were also frequently mentioned. The animals are once seen with the peregrine falcon, and the rest are all records about horses. In addition, prisoners of war and craftsmen were important ‘tributes’, and Mongol demanded that the children of high-ranking people be presented to Mongol Qa'an. Stationeries such as brushes, ink, and paper, dyes such as purple grass(紫草), and pigments such as orpiment were stand out among the items Mongol requested. They were required during period of the Chinggis Qan. There are many reasons for constantly sending goods from Goryeo to Mongol in the early Yeke Mongγul Ulus and to the Mongol commanders of the Goryeo expeditionary forces. First, it was a kind of diplomatic strategy to respond to Mongol’s strong military threats. Second, it can be said that it was a measure to buy the hearts of Mongol generals entrusted with the full authority to command the Goryeo expeditionary force by Great Qa'an. Third, Yeke Mongγul Ulus has demanded some of the insufficient military supplies from Goryeo while simultaneously carrying out expeditions since the Ögüdei Qa'an. In conclusion, the most powerful and frequent invasion of Goryeo by the Mongol army was during the Ögüdei and Möngke Qa'an periods. In particular, during period of the Ögüdei Qa'an, the most threatening attack on Goryeo was carried out due to the murder of ‘Jeogoyeo(著古與)’. In addition, the ‘goods’ required by Mongol were the most in terms of type and quantity. In addition, during period of the Möngke Qa'an, expeditionary forces continued to be dispatched to subjugate Goryeo. However, if we look at the historical data related to ‘goods’, it can be seen that the military threat was not as strong as during the Ögüdei period, and the required goods were reduced. Eventually, in 1259, the crown prince of Goryeo visited Möngke who was on an expedition to Southern Sung(南宋), but upon his death, he met his younger brother Qubilai and asked for submission. Finally, Qubilai’s victory in the power struggle with Ariγ Böke allowed that Goryeo was able to be guaranteed limited safety under the rule of Yeke Mongγul Ulus.

플라노 드 카르피니의 『몽골인의 역사』에 보이는 몽골사 인식

김장구 동국대학교 동국역사문화연구소 2010 동국사학 Vol.49 No.-

In 1234, Ögödei qa’an dispatched the second expedition to the west which was led by the supreme commander Batu and which conquered the Kipchak steppe, Eastern Europe, Russia, and etc. As a result of this expedition, Western Europeans were struck with ‘horror of Tartar (Mongγol) from hell’ and the Papal court had to look for ways to prepare for further Mongolian attacks. On April 6, 1245, John of Plano de Carpini departed Lyons and traveled to the Mongol Empire on a mission to take two Papal letters to the Mongol qa’an. After all the difficulties he faced during the trip, he could made it to Qara qorum on July 22, 1246 and attend the new Great qan Güyüg’s enthronement ceremony. Then he left Qara qorum on November 13, 1246 and arrived back at Lyons in the autumn of 1247. During the return trip, in Rus’, he compiled a report titled “Historia Mongalorum” in which the information he collected in Mongol Empire is recorded. He presented the report to the Pope. In the report, Carpini briefly described Mongolian nature, climate, religion, and custom. He also described the history of Činggis qan’s unification of Mongolian tribes, Mongolian military system, tactics, strict discipline, dignity of the Great qan, and how they governed countries under Mongol rule. Carpini observed and recorded domestic issues of the Mongol empire. He met high officials like Činqai, Qadaq, and Bala who held administrative responsibility of the empire. He met the Great qan Güyüg in person and recorded that the qan was a Christian quoting some person’s testimony. It is true that the qan was in amity with Christianity, but he did not actually treat Christianity with any special favors. There were a lot of foreigners in Qara qorum, the capital of the Mongol Empire which was embarking on great ventures abroad in Eurasia at the time. Carpini met people from Russia or Eastern Europe and learnt a lot of information about the Empire from them. It is noteworthy that Carpini mentioned envoys from Solangi, which means Koryo, six times in his record. In a current Mongolian language Solangi(Solonγos) still means Korea. When one considers the fact that Carpini did not have enough advance information of the Mongol Empire and he was the first person at the time to have visited the Empire, the various information he collected while he was staying in the Empire only for four months is quite impressive. Even though the record reveals Carpini’s lack of understanding on Mongolian history and language, it still has considerably objective validity. But, however, there are some exaggerated facts of Mongolian brutality and savageness in the record. Carpini was on a spy mission and he had to overstate the threat of the Mongol Empire against the west. He also had to stress the need that the Papal court should play a key role in opposition to Mongols. 1234년, 우구데이 카안은 바투를 총사령관으로 하는 ‘제2차 서방 원정군’을 파견하였다. 이 원정군은 킵차크 초원과 동유럽, 러시아 등을 정복하였다. 그 결과 서유럽은 ‘지옥에서 보낸 타르타르의 공포’에 휩싸이게 되었고, 교황은 다시 있을지 모르는 몽골의 공격에 대한 대책을 강구하게 되었다. 그리하여 카르피니는 교황이 몽골의 군주에게 보내는 두 통의 편지를 들고, 1245년 4월 6일 리옹을 출발하였다. 험난한 여정에도 불구하고 1246년 7월 22일 카라코룸 근처에 도착해 새로운 대칸으로 선출되는 구육의 즉위식에 참석하는 행운을 누렸다. 그런 다음 같은 해 11월 13일 카라코룸을 출발해 1247년 가을 리옹에 도착했다. 그는 귀환 도중 루시에서, 그 동안 보고 들었던 것을 토대로 『몽골인의 역사』(Historia Mongalorum)라는 보고서를 작성하여 교황에게 바쳤다. 보고서의 내용을 보면, 먼저 몽골의 자연과 기후, 종교, 관습 등에 대해 간명하게 서술하였다. 이어서 칭기스가 몽골고원의 유목민을 통합하는 과정, 몽골 군대의 편제와 구성 원리, 몽골 대칸의 위엄과 몽골군대의 엄격한 군율에 대해서 기술하였다. 그리고 몽골인의 전투방법, 정복지역에 대한 관리에 대해서 기술하였다. 카르피니는 대몽골국의 내부 문제에 대해서도 관찰하고 기록하였다. 제국의 행정을 책임지고 있던 친카이, 카닥, 발라 등 고위관리들을 만나기도 하였다. 카르피니는 구육 칸을 직접 만났으며, 다른 사람의 말을 통해 그가 기독교도라고 적고 있다. 물론 구육이 기독교에 우호적이었던 것은 사실이지만, 그렇다고 해서 다른 종교에 비해서 특별대우를 해준 것은 결코 아니었다. 유라시아를 아우르는 세계 제국으로 웅비하고 있던 대몽골국의 수도인 카라코룸에는 다양한 이방인들이 존재하였다. 카르피니는 몽골에 체류하는 동안 러시아와 동유럽에서 오거나 끌려 온 사람들을 만났고, 그들로부터 몽골의 내부사정에 대한 정보를 얻어들었다. 특별히 언급해야할 것은 ‘솔랑기(Solangi)’에서 보낸 사신에 대해 여섯 차례나 언급하고 있다는 사실이다. 몽골 사람들은 지금도 한국을 ‘솔롱고스(Solonγos)’라고 부른다. 태어나서 처음으로, 그것도 사전정보조차 불충분한 상황에서 몽골에 다녀온 카르피니의 여행기록은 비록 4개월 정도의 짧은 체류기간이었지만, 예리한 눈으로 관찰하고 다양한 정보를 수집하였다. 어떤 부분에서는 카르피니의 몽골어와 몽골 역사에 대한 이해가 부족한 면이 보이지만, 비교적 객관적으로 기록했다고 할 수 있다. 그러나 한편으로 그들 ‘타르타르(몽골)’의 야만성과 폭력성, 파괴와 살육 등을 과장하여 기술한 측면도 부인할 수 없다. 게다가 카르피니의 사행 목적은 몽골 정탐과 몽골의 서방세계 위협론을 과장할 필요가 있었으며, 몽골에 대항할 연합세력은 로마 교황이 중심이 되어야 한다는 당위성을 강조할 필요가 있었던 것이다.

17세기 ‘몽문 연대기’에 보이는 한국 관련 기록의 비판적 검토

김장구 동국역사문화연구소 2017 동국사학 Vol.62 No.-

13세기 중반부터 14세기 중반까지 고려는 대몽골국[元]과 미증유의 밀접한 관계를 맺었다. 그러나 14세기 후반 몽골은 쇠약해지며 분열하였고, 한반도에서는 고려가 멸망하고 조선왕조가 건립되면서 몽골과의 상호 교류 관계는 점차 소원해졌다. 17세기에 만주[淸]가 흥기하였고, 이 과정에서 조선은 직간접적으로 몽골과 다시 만나게 되었다. 한편 한 세기 동안 고려와 긴밀한 관계를 가졌던 몽골도 그 때와는 달라진 상황에서 조선을 다시금 인식하게 되었다. 17세기 ‘몽문 연대기’의 출현 이전에 한국과 관련한 몽골 측의 기록으로는 『몽골비사』 197절과 274절에 등장하는 기사가 있다. 그러나 『몽골비사』 이후 16세기에 기록된 몽골문 사료는 아직까지 전해지지 않는다. 오늘날 우리들에게 전해지는 17세기에 저술된 중요한 ‘몽문 연대기’는 다섯 종류가 있다. 저자 미상의 『(코리양고이) 알탄 톱치 (Quriyangγui) Altan tob?i』, 롭상단진(Lubsangdanjin)의 『알탄 톱치 Lu. Altan tob?i』, 사강 세첸(Saγang se?en)의 『에르데니-인 톱치 Erdeni-yin tob?i)』, 잠바(Jamba)의 『아사락치史 Asaraγ?i neret?-yin te?ke』, 저자 미상(Jamba ?)의 『(예케) 시라 토오지 (Yeke) ?ir-a tuγuji』 등이다. 이들 사료의 내용 대부분은 과거 대몽골국의 통치자와 칭기스 칸의 후손들에 관한 이야기이며, 맨 앞부분에는 인도와 티베트의 왕통(王統)을 서술한 내용이 놓여 있다. 아울러 중국[明]의 역사와 그들과의 교류 등이 가끔 서술되고 있다. 그러나 고려와 조선 등 한국 역사와 관련된 내용은 극히 단편적으로만 보이고 있다. 이 글에서는 17세기 ‘몽문연대기’에 보이는 단편적인 한국 관련 사료를 찾아서 비판적으로 검토하고 분석하는 것을 목표로 삼고자 한다.

몽골 역사교육의 동아시아 인식에 대한 고찰-중등『몽골사』교과서의 대외관계 서술의 분석을 중심으로

김장구 동북아역사재단 2008 東北亞歷史論叢 Vol.- No.19

This essay brings into the focus of description of foreign relations through the History of Mongolia as textbook of secondary education. thereby it analyzes historical education of Mongolia and the understanding to East Asia. As the result foreign relations and foreign cognizance about the Mongolia were as follows. The period of ancient nomadic nation continued maintaining cultural and political exchange between East Asia(especially, China), Central Asia and West Asia. 10th~12th centuries were periods of disorder and disruption that the Eurasian Continent was unstable geo-politically. When the Hunnu, Hsien-pi, Turks, Uighurs, Khirghis, and the Kitans were thriving, relations between the nomadic tribes and the sedentary people continued maintaining cultural and political exchange each other as mentioned above. The period of Mongol Empire was the most exchangeable era on nomadic history extensively and the Mongolia played a important role in a variety of exchange. After collapse of the Mogol Empire, 14th~17th century was era of foreign relations which give undue emphasis to the Ming Dynasty in China. The Mongols not only oppressed the Ming Dynasty but also tried to trade with the Ming in order to obtain supplies and materials. But the Ming Dynasty built the great wall and controlled the Mongolia economically. And then the Ching Dynasty which the Manchurian tribe established, conquered the China proper as well as Inner and Outer Mogolia, Zunghar in turn. Accordingly the Mongolia was under the rule of the Ching Dynasty. On the one hand, contemporarily the Mongolia was subjected to the Manchu rule, on the other hand, the former resisted against the latter in order to achieve independence and maintained a sense of belongs that mongolia should unite one. Under the control of the Manchurian tribe, the Mongols who wished independence declared the Mongolia’s independence in 1911, when the collapse of the Ching Dynasty broke out. After the Mongolia achieved the independence and established socialist state system, it was placed under the power of Soviet’s influence and was closely connected with some of socialist states. As socialist Mongolia was intimately associated with socialist states such as the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, Cuba, and North Korea. The Mongolia keep on having friendly relations of China but impaired relations with the People’s Republic in 1960s when boundary dispute between the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China took place. Because the Mongolia was on the side of the Soviet Union on the border dispute. With the Mongolia joining the United Nations in 1961, the Mongolia begun to establish diplomatic relation with Great Britain for the first time, and had diplomatic ties with countries in Western Europe. The Mongolia begun to establish diplomatic relations with Japan in 1972, United States of America in 1987, and South Korea in 1990 and thereby made one’s appearance on the stage of international stages. Since the end of 1980s socialism was on the ebb throughout the world, the Mongolia attempted to convert into democratic and free market economy. After that time the Mongolia have cooperated in foreign affairs as family member within the community of nations.

중국 역사학계의 네이멍구[內蒙古]자치구사 서술 분석

김장구 동북아역사재단 2020 東北亞歷史論叢 Vol.- No.68

Most of the recent policies implemented by the Chinese government are associated with the issue of “borderlands.” All the policies are focused on the borderland issue as can bee seen from the China Western Development Program and research projects on the history and geography of Chinese borderlands, such as the Northeast Project and Northern Borderland Project. Difficulties that China now faces, including the ethnic minorities in China and the gap between the rich and poor, are all incorporated into the borderland issue. The Chinese Communist Party has taken a keen interest on the issues of borderland and ethnic minorities since before the foundation of the People’s Republic of China. The paper attempts to analyze the issue of ethnic Mongolians. The Mongols in Inner Mongolia emphasized the importance of ethnic Mogolians to the Chinese Communist Party and, as a consequence, their opinions were accepted and the Chinese government in turn implemented policies to address the ethnic issues. In addition, this paper examines the trends and narratives in regards to the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in Chinese academia, and it has been revealed that the Chinese academic circle encourage Mongolian researchers themselves to confess that the Mongols are proud members of the united multiethnic nation of China. Historically, both the Xiongnu and the Mongols are originated from the regions, which are current territory of Chin. Chinggis Qan, a hero from the Mongol ethnic group, formed a prototype of the “united multiethnic nation” in Chinese history. Qubilai Qa’an, his grandson, was a sinicized figure who accepted highly sophisticated culture of the Han Chinese. A history book describes him as the founder of Yüan, one of the Chinese dynasties. Ming and Mongolia were separated in north and south, but they both form part of Chinese history, and the same can be said for the history of Manchus who founded the Qing dynasty. The Mongols in Inner Mongolia followed the same path with the Chinese Communist Party in their fight against Japanese imperialism, feudal ruling class, proprietary class as well as great Sino-centrism, and made great contributions to the establishment of the People’s Republic of China after achieving independence. History books discussing Inner Mongolia repeatedly describe that Inner Mongolia has been the best example among the autonomous regions of ethnic minorities in China and a proud member of the united multiethnic nation since the foundation of the People’s Republic of China. 오늘날 중국정부의 중요한 정책들은 모두 ‘변강(邊疆)’을 둘러싼 것들이다. ‘서부대개발’, 동북공정과 북강공정 등 ‘변강사지 연구’, ‘소수민족’, ‘빈부 격차’ 문제 등 모든 정책의 시작과 끝이 변강으로 귀결된다. 중국 공산당의 ‘민족문제’에대한 관심은 ‘신중국’ 성립 이전부터 아주 깊었다. 이를 『몽고민족문제』를 분석하여 살펴보았다. ‘네이멍구’의 몽고족들은 중국 공산당에게 ‘(몽고)민족문제’의중요성을 제기했고, 중국 공산당은 이 문제를 해결하기 위해 그들의 의견을 적극 채택하여 실행하였다. 이어서 중국 역사학계의 ‘네이멍구자치구사’ 서술 내용과 흐름을 분석해보았다. 그 흐름은 중국의 ‘한족’ 역사가들이 강제하기보다는 네이멍구의 ‘몽고족’ 역사학자들이 스스로 중국이라는 ‘다민족 통일국가’의 자랑스러운 구성원임을고백하도록 유도하고 있음을 알 수 있었다. 또한 역사적으로도 ‘흉노’와 ‘몽고족’은 모두 오늘날 중국 영토 내에서 기원했으며, 칭기스 칸은 ‘통일적 다민족국가’의 원형을 만든 중국의 소수민족인‘몽고족’ 출신의 영웅으로 중국사의 한 구성원이라고 주장한다. 그리고 그의 손자인 쿠빌라이[元 世祖]는 수준 높은 한지(漢地)의 문화를 받아들여 ‘한화(漢化)’된 인물로, 중국 왕조인 ‘원(元)’의 설립자로 서술하고 있음을 살펴보았다. 한편명과 몽골은 남북으로 분열되었지만 모두 중국사의 일부분이며, 청을 세운 만주족의 역사도 마찬가지라고 주장한다. 네이멍구의 ‘몽고족’은 일본 제국주의, 봉건 통치계급, 대자산계급, 대한족주의 등의 압제와 침략에 맞서 ‘중국 공산당’과 같은 노선을 걸었으며, 마침내 해방을 쟁취하여 ‘신중국’을 성립하는 데크게 기여했음을 강조한다. 마침내 ‘신중국’ 성립 이후에도 ‘민족자치구역’ 중에서 가장 모범적인 ‘네이멍구자치구’로 발전하고 있는 ‘통일적 다민족국가’의자랑스러운 구성원임을 모든 네이멍구 관련 역사서에서 무한 반복하고 있음을밝혔다.

대몽골국 초기 몽골고원으로 유입된 외래물품의 변화상 -우구데이~뭉케 카안 시기(1229~1259년)를 중심으로-

김장구 한국몽골학회 2022 몽골학 Vol.- No.68

The paper highlights the cultural exchanges and their transformation between the Mongol nomadic world and the outer sedentary worlds by analyzing the goods circulation and its change in the early period of the Great Mongol Empire (Yeke Mongγol Ulus). The Great Mongol Empire enjoyed more actively cultural and commercial exchanges with the surrounding regions, while it conducted military war to conquest and wielded its strong influence over the conquered in the eras (1229-1259) from Ögödei qa’an to Möngke qa’an succeeding Chinggis qan. More diverse foreign items flowed into Qaraqorum and its metropolitan area from close and distant areas in this period. In chapter 2 the paper describes major foreign goods entering Mongolia in the Ögödei qa’an’s reign as the time changed. The newly built capital city of Qaraqorum and its surroundings earned its fame of a worldly metropolitan area due to the centralist rule and successful conquest wars of Ögödei qa’an. Since then, textiles such as nasīj(納石失), a high-quality silk woven with gold threads, jewelry such as gold, silver, coral, ruby, and pearls, various food, and beverages like grain and grape wine constantly flew into the capital from sedentary areas. Chapter 3 analyzes foreign goods during the era of Güyük qa’an and depicts the economic situation in the Mongolian grassland. Plano de Carpini’s travelogue Historiae Mongalorum confirmed that plenty of external goods and materials from all parts of Eurasia, as well as envoys, craftmen, and farmers entered the Mongolian plateau in the period. Even Russian subjects had to offer various skin products, including sable leather, to the empire. Chapter 4 examines the economic transformation in Mongolia as various foreign products were introduced in Möngke qa’an’s era. In particular, as shown in Rubruck’s Itinerarium, diverse merchandise formed a market for trading various grains, animals, and carts outside a gate of Qaraqorum city. During this period, imported goods included grain, animals, fur, silk, gold, silver, and pearls. A variety of strangers such as envoys, engineers, farmers, and slaves, were forcibly or voluntarily brought to the capital. In conclusion, while Chinggis qan gained a large number of overseas products by plundering in war against the sedentary worlds, his successors brought more caravans and more diverse foreign goods into Mongolia through the conquest war. In the following era of Qubilai qa’an, strangers represented by Marco Polo gathered to Qanbaliq(modern Beijing) and Xanadu(Shangdu), the new metropolitan areas of the empire along the well-established ǰamči(驛站) network. 칭기스 칸의 뒤를 이은 우구데이~뭉케 카안의 통치시기(1229~1259년)에 대몽골국은 계속된 정복전쟁과 영향력의 확대로 인해 주변 정주지역과의 교류가 더욱 활발해졌다. 이에 따라 더 다양한 외래 물품이 가깝고 먼 지역에서 대몽골국의 수도권인 카라코롬으로 대량 유입되었다. 이 논문에서는 당시 사료에 보이는 다양한 물품의 유통 양상과 그 변화를 통해 몽골 유목세계와 외부 정주세계와의 교류와 변화의 모습을 살펴보았다. 먼저 Ⅱ장에서는 우구데이 카안 시기에 몽골고원으로 유입된 주요 외래물품과 그 변화 양상을 살펴보았다. 특히 새로 건설한 카라코롬 도성과 그 주변은 우구데이 카안의 중앙집권적인 통치와 성공적인 정복전쟁으로 인해 명실상부하게 대몽골국의 수도권으로 자리 잡았다. 이후 정주지역으로부터 고급 비단인 나시즈(nasīj, 納石失) 등 직물류, 금 은 산호 루비 진주 등 보석류, 다양한 식량과 곡주와 포도주 등 음료가 카라코롬으로 계속해서 유입되었다. 이어서 Ⅲ장에서는 구육 카안 시기에 몽골고원으로 유입되었던 외래물품을 분석하여 당시 몽골고원의 경제 상황을 그려보았다. 이 시기 몽골고원으로는 카르피니의 『몽골인의 역사』에 보이듯, 유라시아 각지에서 산출된 다양한 외래물품과 재화, 그리고 사신, 기술자, 농민 등이 몽골고원으로 유입되었음을 확인하였다. 심지어 러시아 속민들은 검은담비 가죽 등 다양한 모피류를 대몽골국에 공납으로 바쳐야 했다. 그리고 Ⅳ장에서는 뭉케 카안 시기에 다양한 외래물품이 유입되면서 변화하는 몽골고원의 경제상을 살펴보았다. 특히 루브룩의 『여행기』에 보이듯, 카라코롬 성문 밖에는 다양한 곡식과 동물, 수레 등을 사고파는 시장이 형성될 정도였다. 이 시기에 몽골고원으로 유입된 물품은 곡식, 동물, 모피, 비단, 금, 은, 진주 등이었다. 게다가 사신, 기술자와 농민, 노예 등 다양한 이방인들도 대몽골국의 수도인 카라코롬으로 모여들거나 끌려왔다. 결론적으로, 칭기스 칸이 정주세계에 대한 약탈 전쟁을 통해 필요한 외래물품들을 대량으로 획득하였다면, 그의 후계자들은 정복전쟁을 통해 더 많은 장거리 무역 상인들과 더 다양한 외래물품을 몽골고원으로 유입시킬 수 있었다. 뒤를 이은 쿠빌라이 카안 시기에는 ‘마르코 폴로’로 대표되는 다양한 이방인들이 정비된 ‘역참(ǰamči)’망을 통해 대몽골국의 새로운 수도권인 칸 발릭과 샹두로 몰려들었다.

체벵(Čeveng)의 몽골 소수민족지 역주ㆍ3-호통, 바야드, 울드, 먕가드, 자흐친,토르고드, 차하르, 다리강가-

김장구 한국몽골학회 2023 몽골학 Vol.- No.75

이 글은 근대 몽골의 위대한 인문학자인 체벵(ǰamsaring-un Čeveng)이 지은 『몽골 소수민족지』 중에서 ‘호통’부터 ‘다리강가’까지를 역주한 것이다. 먼저 호통 사람들의 생업은 농사이며 두르부드와 섞여 살며 몽골화가 되었지만, 생김새는 여전히 투르크계의 특징이 많다. 신앙은 이슬람이며 결혼할 때는 같은 부족 내에서만 상대를 구한다. 그들은 귀족에게 곡식(밀), 가축, 은(銀) 등을 바치고 노동력도 제공하였다. 바야드의 거주지는 가축을 키우거나 농사를 짓는데 알맞다. 그들의 생업은 오종(五種) 가축으로 야크가 많고 소는 적으며 일부는 사냥을 한다. 울드의 거주지는 가축을 키우기에 좋다. 울드 사람들은 몽골 계통이며 4오이라드 연맹의 구성원이었다. 울드 사람들은 야크와 낙타, 양을 많이 기르지만 농사는 적게 지으며 일부는 사냥을 한다. 먕가드의 기원은 투르크 계통이지만 점차 몽골어를 사용하게 되었다. 관습은 호트고이드와 유사하며 신체 골격은 몽골과 유사하다. 먕가드 사람들의 주된 생업은 유목이며 농사는 짓지 않는다. 자흐친의 기원은 토르고드이며, 역사상 준가르칸국의 국경을 지키는 군사를 자흐친이라고 불렀다. 이들의 생업은 유목이며, 일부는 농사를 짓고 일부는 사냥을 한다. 토르고드는 생활방식과 관습, 억양 등이 독자적이지만 자흐친과 유사하다. 생업은 유목이고 일부는 농사를 지으며 4오이라드 연맹의 구성원이었다. 앞에서 언급한 두르부드, 울드, 토르고드, 자흐친 등은 모두 4오이라드 연맹에 속했던 부족들이며 준가르칸국이 멸망한 이후 흩어져 남은 자들이다. 신장성[新疆省]에 있는 일리 차하르 16개 솜은 1758년도에 변경을 지키고 농사를 짓도록 차하르와 나이만 호쇼의 백성들 일부를 옮겨와 거주시킨 것이다. 1911년에 몽골의 민족혁명이 발생하자 차하르의 소미야가 속민을 데리고 몽골국에 합류하자 그들을 캬흐타 서쪽에 살게 하였다. 차하르 사람들은 총명하고 일을 잘 하며, 빠른 말을 좋아해서 말 품종을 개선하는데 열심이다. 다리강가 사람들은 릭덴 호탁트 칸의 속민이었던 차하르의 나이만 호쇼[旗]에서 이주시킨 사람들이다. 다리강가 지역은 몽골 고비 사막을 지날 때 폭이 가장 좁기 때문에 옛날부터 대군이 여러 번 통과하였다. 다리강가 목장의 기원은 울드의 갈단 칸이 할하를 공격하자 청 강희제가 울드를 분쇄한 뒤 노획한 가축을 모아 기르게 한 것이다. 매년 차하르의 아문(衙門)에 규정된 수의 가축을 공출하였다. 이와 같이 체벵은 다양한 자료를 이용해 몽골국의 구성원인 소수민족들의 삶과 자연 환경, 역사와 문화 등에 대해 일목요연하게 정리하였다. 특히 몽골의 변경에 대한 상세한 서술은 1921년 독립한 몽골국의 구성원인 소수민족들의 인구와 경제 상황 등을 파악하여 안정적인 통치에 도움을 주고자했던 것이다. This article is an annotated translation of the Ethnography of Mongolian Minorities written by ǰamsaring-un Čeveng, a great modern Mongolian scholar, covering from the Qotung to the Dariγangγa. First of all, the livelihood of the Qotung is farming, and they have been absorbed into the culture of the Mongols dwelling in the midst of the Dörbed. However, their appearance still retains many Turkic characteristics. They practice Islam as their faith and seek marriage partners only within the same tribe. They used to offer grain (wheat), livestock, and silver to the princes and provided labor as well. The Bayad’s habitat is suitable for raising livestock and farming. Their livelihood is raising the five kinds of livestock, with numerous yaks and few oxen, while some engage in hunting. The Ögeled’s habitat is good for raising cattle. The Ögeled are of Mongolian descent and were members of the Four Oyirad. They raise numerous yaks, camels, and sheep, but sow crops on a small scale, with some practicing hunting. The origin of the Mingγad is of Turkic descent, but they gradually started using Mongolian language. Their customs are similar to those of the Qotoγoid, and their physique is similar to that of the Mongols. Their main occupation is nomadic, and they do not practice agriculture. The ǰaqačin have Torγud origins, and in history, the guards of the borders of the Jungar state were called ǰaqačin. Their primary occupation is nomadic, with some engaging in farming and others in hunting. The Torγud have a distinct way of life, customs, dialect, etc., but they are close to the ǰaqačin. As means of subsistence, they have livestock for transhumance, with some engaging in farming, and they were a branch of the Four Oyirad. The aforementioned the Dörbed, Ögeled, Torγud, ǰaqačin, and so on were all tribes of the Four Oyirad, and the remnants after the fall of the Jungar state. The 16 sumuns of the Čaqars of the Ili in the Sinkiang province consisted of the people from the Čaqar and the Naiman qosiγun who were relocated and settled to guard the border regions and promote farming in 1758. When the Mongolian National Revolution occurred in 1911, Sumiya of the Čaqars led his subjects to join Mongolia, and they were resettled in the west of Kyakhta. The Čaqars are alert and proficient in their work, with a fondness for swift horses and a dedication to improving horse breeds. The Dariγangγa people are those who were relocated from Naiman qosiγun (Banner) of the Čaqar, subjects of Ligden Qutuγtu Qaγan. Dariγangγa is the narrowest point for crossing the Mongolian Gobi Desert, and from early times it has served as a passage for great armies. The origin of the Dariγangγa pasture dates back to the Kangxi emperor of the Qing dynasty. After defeating the Ögeled when Γaldan of the Ögeled attacked the Khalkha, the Kangxi Emperor ordered to gather and raise the captured livestock in Dariγangγa. Every year, a specific number of cattle established by the Čaqar’s yamun was delivered. In this way, Čeveng systematically organized various sources to provide a comprehensive overview of the lives, natural environment, history, and culture of the ethnic minorities that constitute Mongolia. In particular, the detailed descriptions of the borders of Mongolia aimed to help understand the population and economic conditions of the ethnic minorities, who were part of the newly independent Mongolia in 1921, and contribute to stable governance.

대몽골국 초기(1206~1259) 카라코룸으로 간 고려사신들

김장구 이화여자대학교 이화사학연구소 2018 梨花史學硏究 Vol.0 No.57

Until now, studies based on the relationship between Koryŏ(高麗) and the Great Mongol Empire(Yeke Mongγol Ulus) have mainly focused on Mongol's invasions and Koryŏ's defense against them. However, Koryŏ did not always fight against Mongol before Koryŏ was conquered by Mongol. Koryŏ would send envoys to the imperial capital, Qaraqorum(和林), several times as well. In some travelogues by European envoys who had visited Qaraqorum to take a precaution, they were greatly surprised at Mongol’s invasions to Eastern Europe in the early period of the Great Mongol Empire. Few detailed records can be found on ‘the chief of Solangi(Koryŏ, 高麗)’ and ‘envoys of Solanga’. In particular, Plano de Carpini had mentioned Solangi 6 times in his book. One possibility of the identity of the chief envoy from Koryŏ whom Plano de Carpini had met is that he was the Duke of Sinan(新安公), Wang Jeon(王佺). He, at that time, left Koryŏ in tenth month in 1245 by lunar calendar and returned back in the second intercalary month of 1249. The other possibility is that he was the Duke of Yeongnyeong(永寧公), Wang Joon(王綧), who was sent to Mongol as ‘turqaγ(禿魯花)’, the hostage, in fourth month of 1241 by the lunar calendar, and returned back in the ninth month of 1255. So far, there have been various opinions about those ‘envoys of Koryŏ’ whom Carpini met with, in addition to the two mentioned above, other opinions are that he was Gojong(高宗), the Duke of Yeongnyeong, Wang Joon or the Duke of Sinan, Wang Jeon. However, in my opinion, it is much more likely that both of the Duke of Sinan, Wang Jeon and the Duke of Yeongnyeong, Wang Joon were the envoys whom Carpini had met with. William of Rubruck also recorded two notes of Koryŏ; ‘Solanga’ and ‘Caule’. One of ‘the ambassadors of Solanga’ he had encountered with, was the Duke of Yeongnyeong, Wang Joon, who attended the coronation ceremony of Güyük qa'an, mentioned as ‘the chief of Solangi’ by Carpini. The other one was the Duke of Angyeong(安慶公), Wang Chang(王淐). The Duke of Angyeong, Wang Chang was more like the chief of ‘the ambassadors of Solanga’ who Rubruk had encountered with. Nevertheless, there still remains a possibility that he could have met both of them, the Duke of Yeongnyeong, Wang Joon and the Duke of Angyeong, Wang Chang, because ‘the ambassadors’ is a plural form not a singular form. Marco Polo called Koryŏ ‘Cauli’ not Solangi or Solanga in his book, The Travels of Marco Polo. Since then, this name was spread to Europe through Western Asia and it is currently ‘Korea(Corée)’. On the other hand, the word of Cauli got forgotten among Mongolians but the word of Solanga remained as the name of dynasties existing in Korean Peninsular such as Koryŏ ‘Solonγos’.