중국, 한나라 칠기의 조형 연구

송진화 전북대학교 일반대학원 2023 국내박사

The Han Dynasty (B.C.202~A.D.220) was an important period for the development of ancient Chinese culture, which had a profound impact on later generations, especially the Han Dynasty lacquerware was highly evaluated in terms of modeling. The purpose of this study is to explore the modeling characteristics of Han Dynasty lacquerware, explore the advantages of its production technology, and provide basic information for the follow-up research of Han Dynasty lacquerware. At present, the research of Han Dynasty lacquerware modeling design and decorative art is still limited, lacking systematic research results. Therefore, it is of great significance to find out the modeling characteristics of Han Dynasty lacquerware and the advantages of lacquerware manufacturing technology around this study. The purpose of this study is to find out the modeling characteristics of Han Dynasty lacquerware and explore the advantages of its production technology through the modeling analysis of Han Dynasty lacquerware. In addition, it also provides basic data for the follow-up study of Han Dynasty lacquerware. The research scope is based on 359 lacquer artifacts collected by 25 Chinese museums and cultural relics and archaeology departments. The research methods include literature study and case study. The production background of Han Dynasty lacquerware is closely related to political culture, material production and other fields. The development of lacquerware in the early of former Han Dynasty was the result of many factors, such as the policy of recuperation, the influence of Huang Lao aesthetic thought(黄老美学思想) and Chu culture, the aesthetic requirements of the aristocratic class, and technological changes in iron smelting. Lacquer ware in the middle period of the former Han Dynasty, influenced by aesthetic ideas such as Confucianism and the theory of yin and yang, as well as aristocratic aesthetic needs and technological development such as iron making, has been developing continuously on the basis of economic, handicraft and commercial prosperity. In the late of former Han Dynasty, centered on the Confucian decorative aesthetics, with the change of consumption concept and the maturity of lacquer decoration techniques, the artistic style of emphasizing ornate decoration was displayed. After lacquerware was gradually replaced by ceramics in the Later Han Dynasty, dominated by various religious aesthetic ideas and practical aesthetic concepts, the production of lacquerware changed from aristocratic to folk, with commercial characteristics. Han Dynasty lacquerware was developed under the influence of various artistic forms, such as portrait stones, portrait bricks, tiles, furniture, lighting appliances, murals and silk paintings. Therefore, in terms of pattern material, composition method, pattern composition method, expression method and creation concept, it shows the common ground with lacquer ware. In addition, the production of lacquerware in the Han Dynasty was mainly operated by the state, and a special lacquerware industry management department was established to stabilize production and management. The division of labor in the production department is reasonable and efficient. This kind of active management system, which is dominated by the production environment and state-owned enterprises, may be the reason why the Han Dynasty lacquerware formed the golden age of Chinese lacquerware history. The lacquerware of Han Dynasty had a profound influence on the art of later generations in China. Later porcelain design was influenced by Han Dynasty lacquerware in terms of aesthetics and craftsmanship. In terms of functional protection and beautification of artifacts, the lacquerware of Han Dynasty is obviously pioneering. The materials and types of lacquer patterns in the Han Dynasty, as well as the composition of individual patterns and two side continuous patterns, had a great impact on the design of later generations. In addition, the combination of Han Dynasty lacquer and furniture improved the durability and decoration of lacquer furniture. The composition and the form of expression of lines had a great impact on the painting of later generations in China. Investigating the history and tradition of lacquer materials and techniques is one of the important ways to understand the spirit of the lacquer age. In order to understand the essential reason for the birth of the Han Dynasty lacquerware techniques, this study investigated the materials and production techniques of lacquerware. The materials used to make Han Dynasty lacquerware include paint, auxiliary materials, abrasive materials and body materials. The specific lacquering materials include natural paint, dry oil, pigment, metal, beam charcoal, tile ash, etc. The matrix materials mainly include wood, linen, clay, etc. The wooden body is mainly made by carving, lathing, rolling, splicing, mortise and tenon. Ramen crafting is the method of removing the mold from linen. painting technique of lacquer(髹涂技法) mainly include thick material painting, Decoration technique of lacquer(髹饰技法) mainly include color painting, carving and filling, metal inlaying, and paint stacking. The accumulation of experience in dealing with these materials and various techniques has become the background for Han Dynasty lacquerware to have excellent production technology. In order to analyze the shapes of lacquerware in the Han Dynasty, 359 pieces of lacquerware in different periods of the Han Dynasty were classified according to their varieties and periods. Through the analysis of the types, shapes, carcass material, carcass making technique, pattern materials, pattern layout, pattern expression forms, pattern painting techniques, and lacquer colors of lacquerware, the modeling features are sorted out. From the time point of view, most of the lacquerware in the Han Dynasty is from the pre Han Dynasty. In the Later Han Dynasty, due to the development of ceramics and the change of funeral customs, the number of lacquerware was small. However, it is of great significance to observe the overall distribution and modeling characteristics of Han Dynasty lacquerware. As for the types of lacquerware in the Han Dynasty, boxes (35.9%) were the most popular, followed by plates, basins and bowls (16.4%) and cups (12%), while pots, furniture, toys and spoons were few, rare weapons, ladles, tools, funeral utensils, pots, stationery and musical instruments, most of which were practical tools for daily use. In addition, the number of types of some types of artifacts has increased and decreased with the change of the times, indicating that with the advent of lacquerware required by the society, some lacquerware that cannot adapt to the times gradually naturally withdrew and was eliminated. In morphological analysis, most of the boxes were round (50.4%). Followed by cylindrical, quadrangular, etc. The lid and body of the box in the Han Dynasty were both closed from top to bottom. In plates, basins and bowls, the bottom is mostly arc-shaped. Cups are almost all ears. Pots and cans are mostly round bellied. It is believed that the number of other types of lacquerware is small, and there is no significance of morphological classification. The shapes of lacquerware in Han Dynasty can be divided into articles for daily use, bronze imitation, biological imitation, etc. The daily necessities (58.5%) are the most, which can be divided into daily necessities, living room supplies, entertainment supplies, etc. according to the use function. Biomimetic types are animal type, plant type and human type. The body of lacquerware are mainly wood (67.1%). This is because wood is cheap, easy to get and easy to process. The second is the ramie and linen. There are few other materials. In terms of the techniques for making body, the wood body is usually made by planing, chipping, digging and chiseling. In addition, lathing technology and coiling technology are also used. This woodworking technique is selected according to the shape of the utensil. The materials of patterns mainly appear in the order of natural patterns, animal patterns, and geometric patterns, while other patterns have less themes. The main patterns are mainly cloud, persimmon, phoenix, dragon, etc. Most of the patterns of natural phenomena are moire. This seems to be the materialization of the immortal thought of the Han Dynasty. The patterns of animals are mostly birds, phoenixes, dragons, tigers, deer, etc. In the layout analysis of the pattern, the main pattern widely uses the separate pattern of the S- type construction technique. Dependent patterns are mostly two consecutive patterns. The expression form of patterns is mostly abstract deformation techniques (73.5%), and there are few realistic expression techniques. The painting technique of patterns mainly uses the line painting technique (30.9%), followed by the compromise technique of line painting and flat painting (17.6%), the form without pattern (15.9%)。Other painting methods are rarely used. The base color of lacquerware is black on the inside and outside (56.3%), followed by black (27.3%). The color of lacquer patterns is mainly red (57.4%), followed by black. Other colors are less and more used for color matching. It can be seen that the shapes of lacquerware in the Han Dynasty were diverse, with different practical forms and unique decorative features. It can be evaluated that the Han Dynasty lacquerware formed the golden age of ancient Chinese lacquerware culture. In addition, the stable production and management system of the national professional lacquerware industry management department was the factor that the Han Dynasty lacquerware had excellent production technology with various production methods as the center. I hope that I can continue to make specific and systematic research on the lacquer craft of the Han Dynasty in the future.

중국 명나라 의자의 조형 연구

구금 전북대학교 대학원 2024 국내박사

This study aims to analyze the formation reasons and modeling characteristics of chairs made in Ming Dynasty from 14th to 17th century, so as to provide a reference for the study of chairs in Ming Dynasty. This paper analyzes the modeling characteristics of the chair from the aspects of morphology, materials, decorative patterns and pattern production techniques. As for the analysis of the research status of chairs in Ming Dynasty at home and abroad,most of the studies are the overall study of furniture in Ming Dynasty, or the study of the design style of Ming Dynasty furniture, the development and change of furniture in Ming Dynasty, or the comparative study of the design style of Ming Dynasty furniture, etc. Therefore, there is no special study of chairs in Ming Dynasty. The scope of this paper is the chairs left over from the Ming Dynasty from 1368-35 to 1644, including 299 chairs from various museums, art galleries, auction houses and private collections as the subject of this paper. The research methods mainly used literature studies, case studies, and data visualization. Due to the continuous strengthening of the feudal autocracy, the rapid development of the economy and the active civic culture, the furniture of the Ming Dynasty was mainly manifested in two trends: one is the utensils designed for the royal nobility. It is characterized by thick, magnificent, gorgeous and exquisite. The etiquette function of such items is greater than the use function, mainly to show the authority and status. The other is the items designed for the ordinary people. The performance is concise, simple characteristic, belong to the life kind of furniture, give priority to with practical. The formation of the chair modeling in the Ming Dynasty was influenced by the architecture, sculpture, ceramics, lacquer ware and painting art of that time, and it was also related to the overall design characteristics of the furniture at that time. In this paper, the Ming Dynasty chairs are mainly divided into seven categories: throne, Taishi chair, chair chair, circle chair, official hat chair, rose chair and back chair. In the Ming dynasty is the heyday of the furniture development, the early Ming dynasty due to the influence of the war, the economy in recovery, political turmoil, chair is less, but after the late Ming dynasty, with the rapid development of economy, frequent exchange of foreign trade, and the support of national handicraft industry, a large number of labor to handicraft industry. At the- 36 same time, a large number of western valuable wood wood was transported to China. The active civic culture made literati actively participate in the design and production of furniture, and the demand for furniture greatly increased. These factors promoted the rapid development of furniture. The Chair serves as a category of furniture, with human life is the most closely, use crowd much not only, use occasion is big, it and the integral design style of Ming dynasty furniture photograph echo photograph is unified, have the characteristic that has oneself again at the same time. The design of chairs in Ming Dynasty for the accurate grasp of the structure comparison, the full consideration of ergonomics and mechanics, and the application of the Chinese traditional culture are worth exploring and thinking about. Finally, it is hoped that this study can provide a reference basis for our furniture design and research.

The study on the female consciousness in The Song Dynasty : focus on women physical activities and sports

여목함 울산대학교 일반대학원 2023 국내박사

최근에 다양한 분야의 중국 학자들이 송대(宋代) 여성 연구에 괄목할 만한 업적을 이루면서 각기 다른 분야와 관점에서 송대(宋代)의 여성 이미지를 다양한 측면에서 연구하고 결과들을 제시하고 있다. 이는 송나라가 다른 시대에 비해 특별한 시기였을 뿐만 아니라, 송나라의 독특한 정치적, 경제적 상황에서 비롯되었다. 송대(宋代)에는 여성의 지위 향상에 따른 여성들의 교육과 교양 활동 확대가 뚜렷했기 때문에 과거 송대(宋代) 여성에 관한 연구들은 주로 의복과 장신구는 물론 문학적 소양과 사회적 지위에 국한되는 경우가 대부분이었다. 예를 들어, ‘인간’으로서 여성의 사회적 본성에 대한 등한시, 송나라 시대의 여성 미학에 대한 정형화된 이미지, 여성 신체활동과 스포츠에 대한 학제 간 연구 부족 등을 꼽을 수 있다. 이러한 이유로 본 연구 수행과정에서 여성 신체활동과 스포츠 참여와 관련된 사료를 수집하고 분류하는데 여러 어려움이 있었다. 스포츠는 광범위하고 복잡한 사회적 현상이다. 스포츠는 다양한 지역, 국적, 신념, 직업 및 연령의 사람들과 관련이 있다. 스포츠는 사회적 삶을 위한 필수적인 요소이며, 스포츠의 발전은 문명화되고, 건강하고, 과학적인 삶의 방식의 중요 요소일 뿐만 아니라 삶의 질을 반영하는 의의가 있다. 따라서 여성 스포츠에 대한 연구는 매우 필요하며, 중국 여성사와 여성 스포츠사 측면에서 큰 의미를 갖는다. 본 연구는 송나라 시대의 사회적 배경, 경제적 여건과 여성 상황과 관련된 문헌과 고고학적 발견물을 함께 살펴봄으로써 송대(宋代) 여성의식에 대한 이슈들을 살펴보았다. 이를 위해 문헌연구 방법론, 고대 중국어 해석법, 논리적 분석방법 및 고대 중국어 해석학을 적용하여 연구를 수행하였다. 본 연구는 송대(宋代) 여성들이 참여했던 주요 신체활동과 스포츠를 그림, 벽화, 시, 서적 등 역사적 자료를 통해 분석, 정리하였다. 또한, 송대(宋代) 다양한 계층의 여성들의 스포츠 참여에 초점을 맞추고, 송대(宋代) 여성들의 신체적 여가 활동와 스포츠의 특징과 의의를 탐구하기 위해 자료를 분석하였다. 연구의 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 송대(宋代)에는 여성의 신체활동과 스포츠 참여가 크게 번성했던 시기였음을 발견하였고, 송대(宋代) 여성들의 스포츠 참여를 다양성으로 특징지울 수 있다. 송대(宋代) 에는 여성 이데올로기에 유의미한 변화가 있었고, 여성들의 독립의식이 싹 트고 발전하였다. 또한, 송나라의 경제적, 문화적 환경이 이러한 여성 사고의 변화 원인으로 추론할 수 있다. 둘째, 송대(宋代) 여성 스포츠와 여성의식의 관계를 사회적, 정치적, 경제적 측면에서 분석하였다. 이들의 관계는 서로 영향을 미쳤을 뿐만 아니라 인과관계(因果關係)가 있음을 확인하였다. 여성 스포츠의 발전은 여성의식의 각성의 산물이었고, 송대(宋代) 여성 스포츠의 성공은 사회적 환경의 지지와 여성 스스로 이루어낸 성과였다. 여성의식의 발전은 여성들이 적극적으로 스포츠에 참여하도록 동기 부여하였고, 이는 대중 스포츠로의 발전에 문화적 측면에서 긍정적인 영향을 미쳤다. 결론적으로 송대(宋代) 여성 신체활동과 스포츠는 고대 중국의 여성 스포츠의 축소판으로 고대 중국의 여성 스포츠 수준을 반영할 뿐만 아니라 고대 중국인들의 여성에 대한 인식과 심미적 관심을 반영하고 있다. 따라서 송대(宋代) 여성 스포츠가 그 시대의 사회와 문화 번영에 기여했다는 점을 인정해야 한다. 향후 본 연구는 송대(宋代) 여성 신쳉활동과 스포츠에 대한 올바른 이해에 긍정적인 역할을 할 것이며, 오늘날 여성 스포츠의 발전과정을 이해하는데 기여할 것이다. 주요어: 송대(宋代), 여성 신체활동, 여성 스포츠, 여성의식 In recent years, scholars in various fields in China have made remarkable achievements in the study of women in the Song dynasty, presenting various images of women in Song dynasty in different fields and aspects. This is not only because the Song Dynasty was a special period, but also because of its unique political and economic conditions. In the past, the study of women in the Song dynasty was mostly limited to literary attainments and social status, as well as clothing, because the improvement of women's status in the Song dynasty was clearly different from other dynasties, and the improvement of women's education and cultivation was obvious. This led to a series of problems. For example, the neglect of the social nature of women as "human beings", the stereotypical image of women's aesthetics in the Song dynasty, and the lack of interdisciplinary research on women's sports. This has led to a series of problems in collecting and organizing historical data in the process of this study. Sports are a broad and complex social phenomenon. Sports are associated with people of different regions, nationalities, beliefs, professions, and ages. Sports has become necessary for social life and its development is not only an important element side reflection of a civilized, healthy and scientific way of life, but also a of the quality of life. Therefore, the study of women physical activities and sports is very necessary, which is meaningful for the history of Chinese women and the history of women's sports. This paper attempted to examine some issues of female consciousness in this period by examining the social background, economic conditions and women's situation in Song Dynasty, combined with relevant literature and archaeological findings. For this purpose, this paper adopted the documentary method, the ancient Chinese interpretation method, the logical analysis method, and the ancient Chinese hermeneutics method. This paper compiled the main sports that women participated in during the Song Dynasty through historical materials such as paintings, frescoes, poems and books. The study focused on women's participation in sports in all classes of the Song Dynasty and analyzed the data to explore the characteristics and significance of women's leisure and sports life in the Song Dynasty. The results of this study are as follows. Firstly, the study finds that the Song Dynasty was a time of great prosperity for women's participation in sports. Women's participation in sports in the Song Dynasty was characterized by diversity. The ideology of women in the Song Dynasty changed significantly: the independence consciousness of women in the Song Dynasty had sprouted and developed. We also infer that the economic and cultural background of the Song Dynasty was the reason for the change in women's thinking. Secondly, the relationship between women physical activities and sports and female consciousness in the Song Dynasty was analyzed from social, political and economic aspects. It is concluded that the relationship between them not only influenced each other, but also served as a cause and effect. The development of women physical activities and sports was a product of the awakening of female consciousness, and the success of women physical activities and sports in the Song Dynasty was due to the support of the social environment and women themselves, and the development of female consciousness motivated women to actively participate in sports, which also had a positive effect on the cultural aspects of social sports. In conclusion, in Song Dynasty are a microcosm of women physical activities and sports in ancient China, which not only reflects the level of women physical activities and sports in ancient China, but also reflects the spirituality and aesthetic interests of the people of ancient China. It must be admitted that women physical activities and sports in Song Dynasty contributed to the prosperity of Song Dynasty society and culture. We expects that this study will play a positive role in the correct understanding of women physical activities and sports in Song Dynasty and it also encourage the understanding of the development process of women physical activities and sports today. Keywords: Song Dynasty; women physical activities and sports ; female consciousness

朝鮮時代 17世紀 木幀 硏究

高芽羅 동국대학교 교육대학원 2008 국내석사

The present study examined the current state and iconic and style characteristics of wooden wall paintings created in Gyeongsangbuk-do during the 17th century in the Chosun Dynasty focused on the wooden wall painting in the Daewoong Hall of the Daeseung Temple in Mungyeong, and that in the the Daejang Hall of the Yongmun-sa Temple in Yecheon. A wooden wall painting is a wooden relief in the form of a background painting. There are six known wooden wall paintings from the Chosun Dynasty, and among them, those with the date of creation confirmed are the wooden wall painting at the Daeseung Temple in Mungyeong, that at the Yongmun-sa Temple in Yecheon, that in the Gwaneum Hall of the Namjang-sa Temple in Sangju, that in Yaksu-am of the Silsang-sa Temple in Namwon, etc., and those with the date of creation unknown are the wooden wall painting in the Bogwang Hall of the Namjang-sa Temple in Sangju, that at the Gyeongguk-sa Temple in Seoul, that at the Mireuk-sa Temple in Wanju, etc. In particular, the works with the date of creation known are very important because they can be used as bases for setting the chronological order of Buddhist sculptures during the late Chosun Dynasty, and it is very remarkable that most of them were all created during the late Chosun Dynasty. During the Chosun Dynasty, Buddhism was depressed due to the government's policy of suppressing Buddhism, but because the dynasty was born of the Koryo Dynasty that embraced Buddhism as the national religion, it still maintained Buddhism and continued to create Buddhist images steadily. Particularly after the two great wars, one with Japan and the other with Manchu, in which patriotic monks displayed dazzling activities for rescuing the country, numerous Buddhist paintings and statues were created. Nevertheless, research on Buddhist sculptures has been mainly focused on the Period of the Three Kingdoms, the Unified Shilla Dynasty and the Koryo Dynasty, and Buddhist sculptures created in the Chosun Dynasty have been relatively less spotlighted and only recently schools and artists in the period are being studied and discussed actively. Wooden wall paintings function as background paintings, but they are important objects that should be included in discussion on Buddhist sculpture activities during the late Chosun Dynasty. A wooden wall painting is composed of a number of wood blocks, and in terms of its enshrined position and composition, it has the characteristic of a background painting. On the other hand, each image expressed in a wooden wall painting is an independent sculpture image and therefore it is possible to examine the icon of each image separately. In particular, all the extant wooden wall paintings have Amitabha as their main Buddha and this proves that worship to Amitabha was popular throughout the late Chosun Dynasty. Wooden wall paintings play the role of a background painting, but are different from other background paintings in that their material is wood rather than paper or linen. Wooden wall paintings from the late Chosun Dynasty took the form of a frame that surrounded a number of carved wood blocks and were used as background paintings. For this reason, they have been called 'wooden wall sculpture' in previous studies. However, it is called 「……三尊後佛木幀(Samjonhubulmokjeong)……」 according to the record on the bottom of the wooden wall painting (1684) at the Yongmun-sa Temple, 「……實相寺諸佛□□□諸幀 (Silsangsajebul□□□jejeong)……」 on the wooden wall painting (1782) in Yaksu-am of the Silsang-sa Temple, and 「……木幀佛像甲戌造成 (Mokjeongbulsanggapsuljoseong)……」 according to 『天柱山北長寺蹟記 (Cheonjusanbukjangsajeokgi)』, a record on the wooden wall painting (1694) in the Gwaneum Hall of the Namjang-sa Temple in Sangju. Thus, this study calls them 'wooden wall painting' rather than 'wooden wall sculpture.'[각주 : It is unknown when ‘wooden wall sculpture’ was used for the first time, but the term is used until now because its meaning is not much different. However, relevant records are believed the most accurate leads to the original meanings of Buddhist works, and it is considered most reasonable to call wooden wall paintings based on records about them. Thus, because ‘Mokgakjeong(木刻幀)’ has been used in the past for the sake of convenience, we will use ‘Mokjeong(木幀)’ according relevant records. We may also need to reconsider the fact that many terms related to the history of arts were coined for convenience by previous researches and they cause great confusion among us.] The present researcher took interest in the wooden wall paintings because they were all created during the late Chosun Dynasty and all the extant wooden wall painting from the Chosun Dynasty are background paintings with Amitabha as the main Buddha. Thus, this study purposed to examine the current state of the extant wooden wall paintings, and analyzed their contents and religious characteristics focused on their titles, date of creation and expression techniques, and the background of how wooden wall paintings adopted Amitabha as their main figure. For this purpose, we selected four wooden wall paintings superior in the composition of icons and formative beauty and showing the contrast of icon and style among wooden wall paintings from the 17th century, which are the wooden wall painting at the Daeseung Temple in Mungyeong, that at the Yongmun-sa Temple in Yecheon, that in the Bogwang Hall of the Namjang-sa Temple in Sangju, and that in the Gwaneum Hall of the Namjang-sa Temple, and analyzed them closely. First, Chapter II reviewed the trend of Buddhism and the popularity of Amitabha worship in the late Chosun Dynasty as the background of wooden wall paintings created during the period, and based on the background, Chapter III studied the current state of wooden wall paintings from the 17th century and analyzed their sculptural and Buddhist elements. In addition, Chapter IV compared icons in the wooden wall paintings with those in Buddhist statues and Buddhist paintings from the 17th century, and discussed the characteristics of their style. Chapter V considered the meanings of the 17th-century wooden wall paintings in the history of Buddhist art.

朝鮮時代 三身佛會圖에 관한 硏究

황규성 동국대학교 대학원 2001 국내석사

The coming of Sakyamuni(釋迦牟尼) was an epoch-making event in the history of mankind. Since Sakyamuni has achieved complete truth, a good variety of views on Buddhas and Buddha- kayas have been unfolded through the entire Buddhist history. So great was his influence that his message and personality are still a living reality in the life of Buddhists. As all the views on Buddhas had no choice to be accompanied by Buddha-kaya theories, a spate of controversies were made and examined. First of all, referring to the Indian Buddhist history, we can find the plain views on Sakyamuni(釋迦牟尼) the Buddha of the Primitive Buddhism, and the other views of the Divided Buddhism consisting of Sthavira(上座部) and Mahasamghika(大衆部). While Sthavira(上座部) put much emphasis on historical figure of Buddhas, Mahasamghika(大衆部) greatly emphasized ideal aspects of Buddhas. Those opposed views on Buddhas brought Twofold-body Theory of Dharma-kaya(法身) and Nirmana-kaya(化身). To give a detailed explanation, Sakya Tathagata who has reached the very peak of transcendental wisdom is one of Nirmana-kayas(化身), whereas Maha Vairocana Tathagata is the very manifestation of the everlasting Dharma-kaya(法身) Buddha. Coming of the era of Mahayana Buddhism, the views on Buddhas became more diversified and enlarged. Especially the thoughts of Bodhisattva(菩薩), who has been a guide for mankind as well as tried to achieve the Ultimate Enlightenment, deepened the views on the reality of Buddha. Therefore, in the mid Mahayana Buddhism, the views on Buddha-kayas developed into Threefold-body Theory of Dharma-kaya(法身), Nirmana-kaya(化身) and Sambhoga-kaya(報身). Sambhoga-kaya(報身) is a third and compromised form of Buddha between Dharma-kaya, the ultimate truth of universal light, and Nirmana-kaya(化身), historial persons who have achieved Ultimate Enlightenment. Vairocana(毘盧遮那) as Dharma-kaya(法身) originated from the light of Universe in Zoroastrianism. He is the whole entity invisible but immanent and immortal. He is the very origin of Universe, controlling it with his power of illumination. So he is the supremacy among other Buddhas. Locana(盧舍那) as Sambhoga-kaya(報身), usually represented as a figure of Bodhisattva(菩薩) wearing luxurious robes and crown, is the one who has achieved ultimate reality through the practice of great spiritual perfections in numberless births during an incomprehensible length of time. Though invisible to ordinary men, he not only has searched for Ultimate Enlightenment of Vairocana but also is a way-finder, a guide for disciplined Buddhists who want to be free from the ills of the continuing migration through endless series of rebirths. Sakya Tathagata(釋迦佛) as Nirmana-kaya(化身) is a historical figure born to the world as Sidhartha Gotama in order to save mankind who can't see Locana(盧舍那) and Vairocana(毘盧遮那). He is the one of a number of Nirmana-kaya(化身) Buddhas who historically existed in India. Triratna(The Three Precious Ones) - Dharma, Sambha, and Buddha - has been developing its concept on the basis of Buddha's reality. It may be attributed to the sole Moon above sky, the moonbeams between the moon and water, and lots of reflected moons on the surface of water, and also reminds us of Christian Holy Trinity - the Father, the Son and the holy Spirit. Thus Threefold-body Theory of Buddhism, I believe, is very interesting topic to study in the field of compared philosophy of religions as well as in art history. After Threefold-body Theory were established in India, the issues of Christian Trinity were comprehended in the Great Council of Nicaea in 325AD. Buddhist Triratna shares its doctrine with Christian Trinity, and has shown many affiliated iconographies in art works. It is said that Christian philosophy has been developed by the influence of Buddhist precepts. Some scholars presume that Christian Bible was derived from Buddhist sutras. With this background, Threefold-body Theory of Buddhas suggests lots of interdisciplinary topic to examine between Buddhism and Christianity in the aspect of religion as well as artistic iconography. In Northern part of Asia such as China, Korea and Japan, all the views on Buddhas and Buddha-kayas of Indian Buddhism were prosperous with many schools or sects. It is uncertain that the thoughts of Threefold-body of Buddhas were represented into art works in India, but we find that Vairocana was embodied as supreme Buddha in Hua-wen Sect(華嚴宗) of Chinese Buddhism around the mid eighth century. Upon at least the late eighth or early ninth century, Chinese artisans started to make statues of Triratna. Figure 1 and 2 are those examples of Three Buddhas made in Ming Dynasty (明朝) of China. In Korea where Buddhism was introduced in 372 AD, it is remarkable that plenty of Triad of Buddhas have been made and worshiped, whereas not so many examples were in India and China. In Japan where Esoteric Buddhism was prosperous, they did not make any statues of Three Buddhas. Among diverse schools, Hua-wen Sect(華嚴宗) was most popular with Korean people, which was based on Avatamska Sutra and Vairocana(毘盧遮那). Following the teachings of Hua-wen Sect. they made a number of statues and images of Vairocana. Particularly we find many marvelous statues of Vairocana in the Unified Shilla(新羅) dynasty around the ninth century. It is not yet defined when the three Buddhas of Vairocana, Locana (盧舍那) and Sakya Tathagata(釋迦佛) started to be made in Korea. But we estimate that it was about the tenth century, for we have a historical record that tells Three Buddhas were enshrined in Changansa Temple(長安寺) of Keumgangsan Mountain(金剛山) in 982AD. In Chosun(朝鮮) dynasty(1392-1910) Koreans began to create paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas. The five assemblies of Buddhas(figure 7) now in Japan, is one of those oeuvres. Though Buddhism was suppressed by national ideological policy in Chosun dynasty, a number of paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas were produced with the doctrine of Hua-wen Sect(華嚴宗), which continued to prosper till late Chosun. Besides we have to pay attention to huge paintings of Locana, illustrating the stories of Brahmajala sutra(梵網經). Having the meaning of meshes of net, Brahmajala signifies to net or discipline ordinary people and their life. It suggests an ethic for them to be devoted for their family and country. The precept of Brahmajala sutra, though it is Buddhist, also coincide with the ideas of Confucianism, the ideology of Chosun(朝鮮) dynasty. Vairocana as The Light of Truth, accompanied ire his left and right by Locana and Sakya Tathagata in paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas, has usually been enshrined in the Hall of Light(大寂光殿, 大光明殿). Major temples of Korea such as Hwaumsa, Tongdosa(通度寺), Haeinsa(海印寺), have triptych of three assemblies of Buddhas in their main Hall of Light (大寂光殿, 大光明殿). The huge Buddhist paintings, typically developed in Korea and as large as ten or fifteen meters, usually presents the theme of three assemblies of Buddhas. Upon important Buddhist ceremonies, it was displayed in front of temple. With this style of painting we understand that people not only continued to support Buddhism economically but also kept their belief in Three Buddhas in spite of suppression in Chosun(朝鮮) dynasty. The paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas are classified into three different types according to their compositions. 1)The first type consists of three Buddha-kayas of Vairocana, Locana and Sakya Tathagata, while 2)the second shows three Buddhas dwelling in their three different Buddhist worlds - Sakya Tathagata(釋迦), Amitabha(阿彌陀) and Bhaisajyaguru(藥師佛) as well as the three Buddha-kayas of type I. 3)The third type presents just one of the three Buddha-kayas from type I. 1) Type I is representative form of the paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas, for it has all three Buddha-kayas of Vairocana(毘盧遮那), Locana(盧舍那) and Sakya Tathagata(釋迦). Again we may divide it into three detailed variations; a)Locana takes the figure of crowned Bodhisattva (figures 12∼19), b)Locana takes the figure of Buddha without crown(figures 20∼25), and c)Sakya Tathagata exceptionally takes the figure of crowned Bodhisattva, figure 26). Among these three variations, Locana as Buddha of item b) wears humble and modest robes even without luxurious crown, necklets or bracelets, which are typical attributes of Locana. 2) Type II shows double composition of three Buddha-kayas (Vairocana, Locana and Sakya Tathagata) and three Buddhas in three places(Sakya Tathagata, Amitabha and Bhaisajyaguru). It is said that Type II is the result from unifying two different Buddhist doctrines under the repression of Chosun dynasty. Avatamska Sutra of Hua-wen Sect takes Vairocana as supreme Buddha, while Sutra of Lotus portrays Sakyamuni as principal Enlightened one. As composed of five Buddhas of Vairocana(毘盧遮那), Locana(盧舍那), Sakya Tathagata(釋迦), Amitabha(阿彌陀) and Bhaisajyaguru(藥師佛), type II is usually represented with crossed or triangular compositions. We may categorize type II into two detailed ones; a) the one including all five Buddhas(figures 27∼31) and b) the other without some of them(figures 30, 32∼33). Type II may have its emphasis either on three Buddha-kayas or on Buddhas in each their three places. 3) In type III, only one of the three Buddha-kayas is illustrated according to religious requirements. It may represent a) Vairocana as Dharma-kaya(figures 34∼40), b) Locana as Sambhoga-kaya (figures 41∼47), or c) Sakya Tathagata as Nirmana-kaya(figures 48∼52). In the case of b) Locana and c) Sakya Tathagata, Vairocana appears in their crowns, symbolizing the fact that himself is the very root of Buddhist reality in the organic relationship with the other Buddha-kayas. Though they have similar face and body, the three Buddha-kayas mentioned above can be identified by their positions and gestures of hands. Vairocana of the center takes Bodhasri mudra(智拳印) putting two hands on his breast, which signifies ultimate truth, whereas Locana on the right demonstrates Vitarka mudra(說法印) opening two arms outward. On the left Sakyamuni rests his right hand on his knee pointing to the earth. It is the famous Bhumisparsa mudra(觸地印), which is the sign of announcing his triumph against Mara, the personification of evil. Vitarka mudra(說法印) of Locana changes from ∨-shape in Koryo(高麗) dynasty(figures 5∼9) to paralleled 11-shape in early Chosun(朝鮮) dynasty(figures 14∼16). In late Chosun dynasty Locana gathers his hands to form ∧-shape(figures 21, 22). The three Buddhas are placed by the order of Sakya Tathagata, Vairocana and Locana from left to right. The formations of paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas have been developed from simple compositions to complicated ones three Buddhas with Vairocana at the center or three Buddhas with Vairocana at the rear → three assemblies of Buddhas → double composition of three Buddha-kayas and three Buddhas in three Buddhist places. The paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas are mostly from late Chosun dynasty and show stylistic changes in three stages. In the first stage from 1636 to 1724, they remains in clumsy and indelicate styles of early Chosun. Round composition rather than two layers of upper and lower ones was newly introduced. The Buddhas have remarkably larger body than other figures and are positioned with space. Usually the whole canvas is covered with bright and rich colors of emerald, pink, and yellow upon main hues of green and scarlet. The patterns of decoration are delicate and exquisite, realizing the beautiful and majestic Buddhist world.(figures 12, 29, 30, 32, 41, 42, 45, 50, 51) In the second stage from 1725 to 1800, Koreans established political and economic stability, and achieved Koreanized style for the paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas based upon the prosperity of Hua-wen Sect(華嚴宗). The whole space of canvas is filled with Buddhas and other figures placed in their own positions. Pure blue as well as bright green and scarlet give light atmosphere to the paintings.(figures 13∼16, 18, 28, 34, 43, 46∼49, 52) In the third stage from 1801 to 1910, stylistic retreat is remarkable. Political uproar and economic instability reflected its influence on artistic techniques and compositions of the paintings. A number of widened canvas were used, and usually filled with lots of figures. Especially figures around the Buddhas are presented with bigger bodies than former stages. Canvases are covered with turbid and impure colors. However we find new stylistic trends from western painting such as chiaroscuro in this stage. The paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas examined above represent most beautiful and ideal world of Buddhism, which consists of perfections of Dharma-kaya(法身), Nirmana-kaya(化身) and Sambhoga-kaya(報身). With the unique composition and iconography Korean artisans realize Buddhist thoughts of Hua-wen Sect into art work. The paintings of three assemblies of Buddhas, I believe, are distinguished artistic embodiment of universal truth of Buddhism as well as one of the most perfect objects to be worshiped.

조선시대 산수화의 구도연구

노경상 전남대학교 대학원 1990 국내석사

畵家에게 있어 構圖는 건축의 設計圖나 人體의 骨格처럼 중요하다. 화가가 아무리 좋은 技法이나 素材를 택하였다 하더라도 構圖가 좋지 않으면 畵面을 지배할 수 없고 그만큼 호소력도 약해지는 법이다. 특히 山水畵에서 복잡한 自然景物중에 원하는 것만을 取捨選擇하여 主題와 作意를 極大化하는 方法은 構圖에 따라서 달라진다. 따라서 構圖의 設定은 作家의 生命처럼 重要하다고 할 것이다. 韓國美術史에서 山水畵가 가장 發達한 時代는 朝鮮時代이다. 朝鮮時代 主從을 이루었던 山水畵의 構圖를 알아서 韓國的인 畵風의 構圖를 分析하고 그 變遷을 살펴 激變하는 現代美術의 흐름에 對處하고, 韓國畵의 進路를 밝히는 것이 이땅에 사는 韓國畵家들의 使命일 것이다. 本稿의 目的은 朝鮮時代 山水畵의 構圖上의 特徵과 變遷을 考察하여 山水畵의 發達과정과 그 方向을 밝혀 오늘을 사는 韓國畵家들의 사명에 이바지 하고자 한다. 本稿는 朝鮮時代 山水畵의 構圖를 分析함에 있어 繪畵에 미친 中國畵의 精神과 餘白槪念을 살펴보고 時期別 構圖의 變化과정과 그 특정을 고찰하여 構圖의 發達過程을 歸納的 方法으로 糾明해 보고자 한다. 本稿의 時期樞分은 初·中·後, 末期의 4期로 나누는 「安輝樓」씨의 「韓國繪畵史」에 따르고, 參考圖版은 「中央日報」의「韓國의 美」 上·上卷과 「三省出版社」刊 「東洋의 名畵」 韓國 I, II를 참고하였다. 構圖分析은 畵面인 사각형의 내부를 빗금을 그어 圖式化하며, 두 개의 構圖를 竝用한것은 主된 構圖에 빗금을 긋고 다른 것에는 동그라미로 표시하여 구도의 竝合을 살피고, 時期別로 자주 나타나는 構圖를 그 時期의 代表的 구도로 圖式化하였다. 이렇게 양식상으로 구분해보면 時期別로 相異한 점과 그 변화를 쉽게 찾을 수 있을 것이다. 一般的으로 觀念山水畵의 경우 朝鮮代 全期를 통하여 그림이 한 쪽으로 치우친 偏頗구도(또는 半分구도)와, 여기서 조금 발달된 形態의 對角線구도(또는一角구도)가 자주 나타난다는 것이 一設論이다. 그러나 각 時期別 構圖의 發達過程과 特色있는 우리의 그림을 분석하여 그 構圖를 分類하고 꼬집어 역설한 論稿는 찾기 힘들다. 따라서 本 稿에서는 朝鮮代의 대부분의 山水畵를, 時期別로 構圖를 圖式化하여, 그 一般性과 特異性을 集約하면서 그 變遷過程을 推論하였다. 朝鮮時代의 山水畵는 畵面에서 實과虛를 다같이 중시 여기고 構圖는 初期에 偏頗構 圖, 中期에 對角構圖, 後期와 末期에 四角構圖와 한 두 구도의 竝用으로 발전하였다. The composition is the most important element to be considered first when a painter creates his works, Just like a draft for architecture or a skeleton of a human body. However good the applied techniques or its material or theme may be, the poor composition results in a decline of dominance in a picture and as such the picture does not appeal to anyone properly. The appearances of a landscape especially, in which only the major points among complex natural scenery features are chosen and represented and there by the subject matter of works and the intention of an artist are conveyed effectively, may be varied according to its composition; the way to maximize the theme of picture also depends on the composition. Therefore, It is exaggeration to say that the building up of proper composition is the artist's life. Through the history of Korean fine arts, it is in the Lee dynasty that the most flourishing development of lanscape was achieved. By capturing the composition of the landscape which was a main stream of paintings in the Lee dynasty analyzing the Korean particular composition style of paintings and then examining its transition to grope for a course to advance of Korean paintings' in order to cope with the flow of the fluctuating modern arts would be a duty of the artists living in this land. Accordingly, the objective of this study is to consider the characteristics and the changes of the landscape composition in the Lee dynasty, to infer the developmental stages process of landscape from this, and besides to present the right direction of landscape in the future. I hope that this study will contribute to define a small part of the things artists of Korean painting have to identity these days. In analyzing the composition of landscape in the Lee dynasty, I attempted to identity the developmental aspects of composition in each period in the inductive way, through the study on the influence of the Chinese painting on the paintings of the Lee dynasty and concept of the blank, and the consideration on the change and the characteristics of each period's composition of paintings. The period classification this study adopts is based on A History of Korean Paintings by Ahn whi-jun, in which Lee dynasty is classified into four periods. i.e., the beginning, the middle, the late, and end. The consulted illustration books are two volumes of Beauty of Korea published in Choong-Ang Ilbo and the Korean part I, II, of Marterpiece of the Orient published in Sam Sung publishing company. In this study, the composition was schematied and analyzed by drawing a deviant line inside a square of picture or, in case that two compositions were together adopted in a picture, by drawing a deviant line on the main composition and a circle on the other major one. Then, this diagramming shows how the composition is consolidated and which is the most recurring composition in a particular period. We consider this form of composition as a representative of the period. If we try to classify pictures through this mode we will be able to find the change differences in style of paintings in each period and its change. It is generally accepted that a spiritual landscape (i.e., a picture delivering one's idea or spirit through the representation of scenery) in the beginning period of Lee dynasty painting took the partial composition that the major part of painting is driven to the one corner of a picture, or further, more developed form of diagonal composition. However, we have a difficulty in finding a discussion pointing out the composition of paintings throughout Lee dynasty as a result of taking the developmental stages of composition in each period into consideration analyzing characteristic picture of the Lee dynasty, and classifying their composition. Thus, I try to show the general and the specific of the composition in the Lee dynasty and induce its change from the schematization of most landscape compositions in the Lee dynasty.

Analysis of Archery Techniques in the Dynasty of Qin Shi Huang

티엔루이펑 안동대학교 일반대학원 2022 국내석사

Abstract Although differences in regions have created differences in civilization, there are always similarities in the development of different civilizations. When the Peloponnesian War, which ended the golden age of Greece began (431 BC), almost at the same time period, ancient China also ushered in the Warring States Period (475 BC), which was a period of constant wars before the first reunification. This period of war was the last period before the maturity of ancient Chinese civilization. Some scholars likened this period of war to the pain before civilization matured. During this period of China, after the evolution of the peace era and the development before the war era, there were many distinctive sports activities. Archery was one of the important sports at the time, and it is now an Olympic event. This article selects the era of war to prepare for the war to unify China, the war and the turbulent period after the end of the unification war. Because the unification war was launched by Qin Shi Huang, this period is called the Qin Shi Huang Dynasty. Through the research on the archery in the Qin Shi Huang Dynasty, understand the development of the archery technology in the Qin Shi Huang Dynasty. By using the analysis of archaeological relics and the method of document investigation, this paper studies and analyzes cultural relics, historical relics, ancient books, modern domestic and foreign works and papers related to sports and activities, especially archery. The first part analyzes the social background of Qin Shi Huang Dynasty and studies sports activities at that time and found that the practice of warfare is the direct driving force for the emergence and formation of sports in the Qin Shi Huang Dynasty. According to the characteristics of the war era, it is studied from three perspectives: rulers, soldiers who participated in the war, and the war itself. The demand for archery of these three factors has the characteristics that everything in the war era is to win the war. These characteristic demands also affect the development of archery in the Qin Shi Huang Dynasty. Archery mainly relies on archery equipment and the skills of the archers. Therefore, The second part studies the development of archery equipment and archery technology in Qin Shi Huang's time. The demand with the characteristics of the war era affected the development of archery equipment, and the breaking of old traditions in the war era and the rise of Confucian culture at that time also affected people's understanding of archery technology at that time. The traditional Chinese archery equipment was basically finalized at that time, and the Confucian culture that was just emerging at that time also became a traditional Chinese culture. This provides a certain reference for modern research on the origin of traditional Chinese archery culture. In the last part, the archery technique embodied by the Terracotta Warriors and Horses is studied. First, the posture of the archers in the Terracotta Warriors and Horses is researched by the difference of the postures, and then the archery techniques embodied by the postures of the Terracotta Warriors and Horses are analyzed by combining ancient books and modern works. The Terracotta Warriors and Horses were made in the original form of Qin Shi Huang 's army, and the archers in them can more realistically show the archery skills at that time. Key words: Archery, Qin Shi Huang Dynasty, Techniques, Developing

朝鮮前期 譯官硏究

백옥경 梨花女子大學校 2000 국내박사

朝鮮時代 譯官은 대외 관계에서 通譯을 비롯하여 각종 外交 實務를 담당했던 技術官員이다. 역관은 외국 사신 및 수행원 영접·使行 隨行 등을 통해 외국인과의 실제 접촉은 물론 정보활동까지 수행하였고, 經濟·文化的으로는 公貿易을 담당하고 先進 文物 導入의 통로 역할을 하였다. 역관에 대한 기존 연구는 주로 朝鮮時代 中人과 관련된 身分 硏究의 일환으로 진행되어 왔다. 역관이 上級 技術官員으로서 양반에 못지 않은 知識과 經濟的 實力을 축적하였음에도 불구하고 항상 사회적 差別待遇를 받으며 技術職 中人으로 고정되었다고 여겨졌던 것이다. 그리고 역관이 이를 극복하기 위한 움직임으로서의 정치·경제·문화 활동에 대해 주목해 왔다. 그러나 이제까지는 역관을 연구하는 목적이 사회 신분제도 규명에 모아진 결과, 정작 역관 자체에는 별다른 관심이 기울여지지 않았다. 그리고 시기적으로도 朝鮮 後期에 연구가 집중되어 있어서, 역관에 대한 전체적인 歷史像을 그려낼 수 없었다. 특히 譯科榜目이나 完薦記, 譯官 家門 연구를 통해 職役의 세습 경향을 밝히고, 이를 근거로 身分의 固着化 혹은 신분의 閉鎖性을 주장하는 것은, 통계 해석에 恣意性이 있으며 세습의 기준 설정이 모호하여 문제를 안고 있었다. 본 연구는 이러한 한계를 인식하고, 朝鮮 前期 譯官을 연구 대상으로 하였다. 우선은 역관 이해를 위한 기초적인 작업으로서, 조선 전기의 역관에 대해 客觀的이고 綜合的인 고찰을 시도하였다. 역관에 관련된 제도의 변화는 물론, 조선 전기 약 100여년간 활동한 역관의 官職과 활동내용 등을 분석하였다. 이를 통해 역관직의 구조, 역관의 선발·임기·관직 진출, 활동 내용 등을 상세하게 밝히고자 하였다. 두 번째로는 위의 결과를 토대로 조선 전기 사회에서 譯官의 性格과 位相은 어떠하였는가 하는 점을 규명하고자 하였다. 이것은 國家 統治 體制 하에서의 譯官 업무의 특성과 그 世傳性 여부, 역관에 대한 差別 여부를 고찰하는 작업으로 구체화되었다. 본 연구는 譯官이 中人身分으로 존재했는지 여부를 판단하기 위한 것으로서, 역관 더 나아가 중인 이해에 기여하고자 하였다. 조선 전기 역관은 高麗末 朝鮮初를 거치면서 기술관으로서의 位相을 확보하였다. 고려말 조선초 對外關係의 多元化와 明의 留學生 파견 금지 조치는 譯官 養成의 필요성을 증대시켰다. 뿐만 아니라 국내적으로도 富國强兵을 추진하는 가운데, 明의 선진 기술을 도입해오기 위해서는 역관의 활동이 요구되는 상황이었다. 따라서 조선 건국 직후부터 역대 국왕은 역관 양성에 깊은 관심을 표명하였다. 그 결과 역관을 문무 관료체계 속에 編制하는 한편, 역관의 업무를 담당하는 행정 관서의 설립이 시행되었다. 역관의 敎育과 選拔 제도가 성립되었고, 역관의 전문성 강화를 위한 다양한 정책이 실시되기도 하였다. 조선 시대 역관은 司譯院 官職과 軍職에 진출할 수 있었던 中央 譯官, 지방에서 직접적인 對外 交涉을 수행했던 外任 譯官이 있었고, 그 외 鄕通事라는 이름의 지방 通譯人도 있었다. 이들은 上下의 연결 구조 속에서 국가의 대외관계 업무를 수행해 나갔던 것으로 여겨진다. 역관의 충원대상은 良家子弟 혹은 鄕校生徒, 鄕吏 三丁一子, 鄕吏, 庶孼, 歸化人이었다. 일부 文武 官僚 및 그 子弟들이 국가의 역학 장려정책에 따라 習讀官이나 講隸官으로 진출한 예는 있으나, 실제 역관으로 활동하지는 않았다. 역관은 일반적으로 生徒로 入屬한 뒤 譯科 혹은 取才를 통해 관직에 진출하였다. 역과나 취재는 능력 위주의 선발 방식으로서, 역관의 자질 함양에 기여하였다. 역관은 司譯院 官職과 軍職에 진출할 수 있었다. 사역원 관직은 세종대 遞兒職으로 정비되면서 6개월마다 교체 제수되어야 하고, 最高位가 정3품으로 한정되어 그 이상의 진출이 사실상 제한되어 있었다. 뿐만이 아니라 역관에게는 일반 문신과는 다른 人事規定이 적용되고 있었다. 역관은 仍任制로 인해 역관으로서의 職任을 벗어날 수 없었고, 取才 성적에 의해 관직의 陞黜이 좌우되었다. 이러한 인사규정은 업무의 지속성과 전문성을 확보하기 위한 조치이기는 하였다. 그러나, 만약 취재에서 좋은 성적을 거두지 못하면 勤務年限이 아무리 오래되어도 승진하지 못하고 祿俸도 받지 못한 채 역관의 업에 종사하도록 강제되었다. 역관의 활동은 매우 다양하였는데, 특히 外交 부문에서의 활동이 두드러지게 나타난다. 사신 영접과 使行 隨行 등을 통해 직접적인 外交 實務를 담당하면서, 일부 역관은 외교관으로서의 뛰어난 업적을 이루기도 하였다. 그러나, 또 한편으로는 상대국에 국가의 기밀을 누설하는 등 逆機能의 모습을 보이기도 하였다. 반면, 조선 초기 역관의 정치·경제·문화 활동은 크게 부각되지 않는다. 개인적으로는 지위 상승 욕구를 표출하거나, 문화적 욕구를 가지고 있었다고 할지라도, 이것이 集團的 수준에서 표현되지 못하는 한계를 가지고 있었기 때문이다. 경제적으로도 권세가나 富商大賈의 대리 무역 수준이었고, 獨自的인 무역은 큰 비중을 차지하지 못하였다. 그러나 점차 집단적인 상언의 형태로 처우 개선을 요구하거나, 선진 기술 수용에도 적극적이고 유교적인 소양을 갖춘 역관들이 文人과 교류하는 등 의미있는 변화가 나타나기도 하였다. 조선전기 사회에서 이러한 역관의 性格과 位相은 역관이 담당하고 있는 업무의 특성, 역관에 대한 差別의 實在 與否, 역관 職役의 世傳 與否를 기준으로 고찰될 수 있다. 역관의 주업무인 통역은 쌍방의 의사 소통에 도움을 주는 수단이었다. 따라서 사실상 외교 정책의 수립이나 결정과는 거리가 있는 것이었고, 기능적인 역할에 국한되는 면이 있다. 즉, 역관의 업무는 외교관계에서 보조적인 위치를 차지하는 것이었다고 하겠다. 이러한 역관에 대해서는 사회적·제도적 차별이 가해지고 있었다. 사회적으로는 역관을 일반 문무 관료와는 구별하고 천시하는 의식이 존재하였고, 제도적으로는 人事規定의 차별적 적용, 堂上官으로의 진출 제한 등이 가해지고 있었던 것이다. 그러나 고려시대에도 역시 차별이 존재하였다는 사실에 의거해 볼 때, 이러한 차별의 연원은 조선 시대 이전으로 소급될 수 있었다. 그리고 譯官 職役은 일반 민이 대행할 수 없는 전문 지식과 기능의 숙달을 요하기 때문에 世傳의 경향이 강한 것은 사실이다. 그러나 父의 직역을 그 자손이 자동적으로 계승하도록 강제하는 조항을 명시하거나 시사해주는 사례는 찾아볼 수가 없었다. 오히려 시험을 통해 능력을 검증받은 자들을 임용하려 함으로써, 능력이 역관 진출에 결정적 척도가 됨을 볼 수가 있었다. 뿐만 아니라 역관의 후손이 아무런 장애 없이 문관으로 진출하여 활동하고 있는 것도, 세전이 이루어지지 않았던 증거로 들 수 있다. 결국, 조선 전기의 역관은 전문적인 기술관원으로서의 위상을 확보해가면서도, 상대적으로 특권에서 배제되거나 규제받으면서 하급 지배층으로 존재하였음을 알 수 있다. 이들은 하급 관료로서 상급 지배층을 보조하면서 지배층의 일원으로서 체제유지에 기여하기도 하였다. 이들은 職役의 專門性 때문에 世傳의 경향이 강하였지만, 또한 능력 위주의 충원 방법과 다른 직역으로의 이동 가능성에 의해 고정된 신분으로 존재한 것은 아니었다. 적어도 조선 전기의 경우, 職役을 곧 신분으로 置換해서 이해할 수 없다는 것을 의미한다. Translators in the early Chosun Dynasty were techno-officers who had worked for translating and diplomacy. They had contacts with foreigners and collected the information during their meeting, played an important role as the pipeline of public trading and introducing the advanced foreign culture. The exiting studies of translators were mainly focused on the class which was relating to the middle class of Chosun Dynasty. It was studied that Translators were always discriminated by a techno-officers with the ruling class who were called as Yangban socially, though they had knowledge and fortune no more than the ruling group did. The studies had been paid attention to the politic, economic and cultural activities which they had tried to overcome this discrimination. But until now the studies have been made of the system of social class, hadnt paid an attention to the role and activities of translators. And there is no big picture on the translator because they have been studied mainly about the later of Chosun Dynasty. Specially studies which have been worked on transferring translator class with the items of test and the translator family, which have problems about the arbitrary meaning statistically and the vague criteria of transferring. Therefore I have studied translators in the early Chosun Dynasty ,with that limits. First of all, I tried to analyze the translators of that times in order to understand their profession objectively and on the whole. The analysis was done with 224 techno-officers and activities during about 100 years of early Chosun Dynasty as well as the change of system relating to translators. Then I tried to define their jobs, selecting method, their tenure, their process of nominating as a techno-officer, and their activities in details. Second, I tried to define the characteristic and status of translators in the early Chosun Dynasty on the base of their results. It was developed to consider their jobs, whether or not to transfer their profession, discriminating their status under the control of Chosun Dynasty which was a monarchy. This study tried to contribute to decide what kinds of class translators was and to understand the middle class as a translator. Translators of the earlier Chosun Dynasty had earned their status as a techno-officer from the later Koryeo Dynasty to the early Chosun Dynasty. During those times, the Dynasty had had the multi-relationship with nearby countries and banned students from going aboard for study to China which was called Myeong Dynasty . that policy made Chosun Dynasty train the translators. Moreover they needed translators in order to introduce the advanced technology of Myeong, because Chosun Dynasty had driven to become a wealthy country and to make a powerful army at those times. So the Chosun kings had tried to train translators immediately after founding his country. It was resulted that translators had been organized into the system of civil and military officials. In addition to, an administrative which took charge of jobs for translators was established. Then the system of education and selection was made, the various policies which the specialty of translators had been made an emphasis were enforced. There were different kinds of translators who had been a central officer to be able to get a civil jobs(Sayeokueon) and a military jobs, who had been a diplomat taking charge of foreign relationships, who had been a local officer taking charge of simple translation. They had been controlled under the government. The qualifications for recruiting as a translator was given to a son of Yangban class, student of Hyangkeo, Hyangri who was a local lower officer, a child born of concubine and a naturalized person. Some son of the ruling group who had been called Yangban also became a academic researcher who had been called Sbdokkdan or Kangyeokoan. But they didnt worked for translators. Generally translators entered to the institute as a student and became a officer through test which was called Yaokka or Chuijai. That kinds of testing method, which selected person with his ability was contributed to improve the quality of translator. Translator had been able to become an officer of Sayeokueon and to get a military jobs. The position in his job should be changed in every 6 months with setting job as a Hoagik in Seoisongs and he would have a limit of promotion to the Jeong Sam Pum even if he had been promoted into the highest positions. Besides there were the other regulation which was governed to translators different from general officers. They should take charge of translation. They didnt have the freedom of changing their job under the control of Naimje, positions were influenced by their results of test which were called Chuijai. It was the reason that rules of personnel management were means to get the professional specialty and consistence. But if anyone hadnt gotten a good credit, even though he had worked for a long time, he couldnt have been promoted and forced to work for job without his salary. Their activities were very various, among them diplomatic activities were outstanding. Some of them greeted with foreign representatives directly and performed an excellent contribution as a diplomat. on the other side, they had also done bad activities revealing the top secret of country. But in the early Chosun Dynasty, there were a few activities which translators had made on the politic, economic and cultural field. Even if they had waned to raise their status or to express their thought, there were no freedom to express their needs within the group of class. In the economic side, they had little economic importance with their trading activities because people with power or the rich and large merchant mainly played the important role in the agent trade. But gradually meaningful changes happened which they wanted to improve their status with the same group of them, received the advanced technology aggressively, came in contact with Yangban class. The characteristics and status of translators in the earlier Chosun Dynasty could be considered as criteria whether or not to be the discrimination of them, whether or not to transfer the status of them. Translating had been the key role of them and means to communicate with foreigners. Their role was limited to only the functional thing different from decision-making in diplomacy. That is, their job was an assistant in diplomatic relationship. Those days there were atmosphere to discriminate against translators and despise them socially, unfair treatment not to go into Dangsangkoan and the discrimination in personnel management. When we find also discrimination in the Koryeo Dynasty , so I can believe that this custom could be before Chosun Dynasty. The job of translators should have been transferred to require specific knowledge and master of their function. But there were no evidence to be able to find out regulations which their jobs was transferred from father to son automatically. On the contrary we can find that ability was measures to go into the officer of translators when competent people being appointed with test. Moreover when descendent of translators could enter into Mungoan without obstacle, it is evidence not to transfer their jobs Finally I can find translators of those days were the lower ruling class, gaining their status as professional techno-officer and receiving unfair treatment. They played the role of supporting the higher ruling class and contributed to maintain the system of Chosun Dynasty. Though they were likely to transfer their jobs with their professional specialty, their status wasnt fixed after we found evidences to recruit people with competence and to be able to move into the other jobs and status. At least, in earlier Chosun Dynasty, I conclude that translator couldnt be replaced by status

朝鮮末期 墨竹畫에 대한 硏究

홍정림 수원대학교 2023 국내석사

高麗時代 慶州金氏의 家系

김연옥 숙명여자대학교 대학원 1982 국내석사

This paper is prepared for the close study on the Kims from Kyung Joo in Koryo dynasty. Especially the keynote is given to the structure of the said family to extract out the Kims' difference from other families. In line with this, approach is made by reviewing the process of the family's rise, what their social status was in Koryo dynasty and what their activities were. After the end of Shilla dynasty, considering the importance of local power, Koryo dynasty fully approved and reflected the local power in its reconstructing of new society. Here the local power with the background in their native place began to establish the ancestral home ( 本貫 ; Ponkwan). And the descendants of Shilla's royal family gradually appeared as a noble class with their background in Kyung Joo. The Kims from Kyung Joo, starting from Kim Ahl-jee, began to be divided into several lines in the process of establishing its ancestral home during the early Koryo dynasty. King Kyungsoon of Shilla dynasty, unable to overcome the strong invasion from Paikjai dynasty, gave up his kingship and handed over his country to Koryo dynasty. Owing to this bloodless peaceful relinquishment of power, the aristocracy of the old Shilla dynasty could enter the Koryo society of the aristocracy more easily. Moreover, Koryo dynasty employed an appeasement policy to achieve the unification of two countries more smoothly. The Kims from Kyung Joo, the royal family of Shilla dynasty was regarded as aristocracy in Koryo and the intermarriage between the Kims and the Koryo royal family more strengthened the social and political status of the royal Kims. King Kyungsoon was appointed Sashimkwan ( 事審官 ) of Kyung Joo district by Koryo dynasty. But only two sons of his remained in Kyung Joo and other sons were spread over the country. With these two remained sons, the Kims from Kyung Joo in Koryo dynasty began one line. Another line of the Kims from Kyung Joo is In-Youn's family line. This line, according to their pedigree, began with the King Wonsung of Shilla and especially at the time of In-Youn, this family was prosperous. They accomplished high positions publicly and by marriage relationship with Koryo royal family and the Lees from In Joo, one of the powerful aristocracy, they maintained their aristocracy. The other line is that of King Mooyul of Shilla. This family became to rise at the time of Kim Bu Sik. When the riot which claimed to move the capital from Kaekyung to Sokyung, as a party that asserted capital should be remained in Kaekyung, Bu Sik and his brother defeated the riot successfully. By this outstanding accomplishment, their status became formidable. Besides, all these three families produced one prime minister and several ministers. According to the category definition of the aristocracy in Koryo, it is said "the family who is in marriage-relationship with the royal family," or "the family who produces a prime minister." Here we can extract that these families were surely belonged to the aristocracy of Koryo dynasty. However, each of these three family lines arouse at the different time and it seems they didn't have any family ties or kinship. Moreover, the government of Koryo also regarded them not as one family but as three different families separately. Therefore, in Koryo dynasty these three families were in common only in the same ancestral home, Kyung Joo, not in any kinship. In view of these, three families called "the Kims from Kyung Joo" in Koryo dynasty should be understood and regarded separately as three different family lines.