고구려 胡馬의 유입과 鐵騎兵

이홍두(Yi, Hong-Du) 역사실학회 2013 역사와실학 Vol.51 No.-

Goguryeo brought up a dual system of cavalry consisting of light cavalry and iron cavalry. The formoer employed native Gwaha horses, while the latter large-limbed Homahorses. Homa horses had been imported from Northern nomadic countries, the first of which was the divine horse that King Daemusin got while engaged in hunting. In the fifth year of King Daemusin, Goguryeo lost the divine horse during the war against Buyeo, but one day, he returned with 100 Buyeo horses, which are assumed to be descendents in a Western lineage. Goguryeo’s acquisition of such large-limbed horses means that she succeeded in improvement of a new species of larger than middle-limbed horses. Goguryoes’iron cavalry has been confirmed in the 3rd century’s literature, and also with the harness discovered from tomb murals and kingly tombs created in the 4thcentury. The horses and warriors of the iron cavalry were all armed with armor. The warriors wore suits of armor for cavalry, while the horses got entirely dressed in armor except for their legs and equipped with horse face armor on their face. Horses armed in this way were called Gaema, and the cavalry riding them Cheolgibyeong(iron cavalry). Such strong equipment for the protection of horses reflected the fact that cavalry battles were very important. While Goguryeo adopted the strategy of empty fields and castle defense in the early period when her main force was light cavalry, she shifted to the aggressive strategy in the mid 4th century, with which she had the iron cavalry in vanguard to charge. The strategy of charge with iron cavalry was possible with the equipment of harness like saddles and stirrups. After the cavalry armed with long spears and suits of armor charged in vanguard to break the enemy’s line, the infantry behind it assaulted the enemy with swords and axes. At the same time, the light cavalry attacked the collapsing enemy’s infantry from the sides.

당나라의 고구려 침공과 기마전

李弘斗(Yi, Hong-du) 국방부 군사편찬연구소 2010 군사 Vol.- No.77

임진왜란초기 조선군의 기병전술

이홍두(Yi, Hong-Du) 백산학회 2006 白山學報 Vol.- No.74

The Chosun-Japan War began as the Japanese Army landed at the Busan Port on April 13 1592. At that time, Chosun had deployed its main force along the Duman River in preparation against the invasion of Jurchens, the defense of the southern front line was loose. As the Japanese Army moved northward rapidly, the Chosun government threw General Shin Rip into the battle line. Considering whether to line up the defense force at the rough Joryeong pass and launch a surprise attack or to wage a cavalry battle at Tangeum-dae, the general pitched a camp at Tangeum-dae because the Chosun Army had been defeatedin every engagement at the Joryeong pass until that time. Eight thousand Chosun cavalry soldiers fought bravely against Japanese force of 50,000 but all of them fell in the battle. The Pyeongyang-seong Battle fought by the combined forces of Chosun and Ming lasted three days from the 6th to the 8th of January 1593. Ming General Nak Sang-ji and Chosun General Lee Yil attacked the Hamgu Gate of the Pyeongyang-seong Wall, and Lee Yeo-song attacked the Chilseong Gate. The Japanese Army dug the ground in front of each gate on the outer wall and the inner wall, and deployed firelock units. Around the dugouts were deployed spear and sword units, cavalry and archery. Although the Chosun-Ming Allied Forces suffered great damages by the firelock units, the Ming Army recaptured Pyeongyang-seong using advanced weapons such as Bangpae(防牌), Rangseon (狼筅), Jangchang(長槍), Dangpa(鏜鈀). On the other hand, Chosun cavalry pursued and destroyed Japanese remnants running away out of Pyeongyang-seong. General Gwon Yool pitched a camp with 2,300 monk and patriotic soldiers at Haengju-seong on February 12 1593. The Japanese Army divided its 30,000 soldiers into the right and left forces and attacked the wall with firelock units and artillery at the front. However, the Chosun Army lured them close to the fortress and then shot arrows, threw stonesand fired all kinds of cannons. Japanese forces attacked by turns, but as Gyeonggi-do governor Lee Bin supplied tens of thousands of arrows and cargo vessels from Jolla-do also supported, the battle was won by the Chosun Army. The great victory at Haengju-seong led by General Gwon Yool was due to the defense tactic leaning against the wall. Since then, the Chosun Army took the wall defense tactic as the foundation of national defense.

고려의 몽골전쟁과 기마전

이홍두(Yi Hong-Du) 역사실학회 2007 역사와실학 Vol.34 No.-

The present study examined chivalry battles between Goryeo and Mongolia. According to the results when it attacked a fortress the Mongolian Army used the tactics of taking the fortresses swiftly with stone artillery fire artillery and crashing machines(衝車). On the contrary the Goryeo Army defended the wall through clearing the field with no food left(淸野守成) and established a cooperative system with surrounding walls. Since the 3rd War when the capital was transferred to Ganghwa do the Goryeo Army faced the Mongolian Army at mountain walls and islands. Against Mongolian Army's destructive siege strategies the Goryeo Army reacted in two ways. First the defending army waged a chivalry battle outside the Anbuk Wall but was defeated. However General Park Seo concentrated on defending the Gwiju Wall and watching for a chance he launched a unit of chivalry outside the wall and made surprise attacks. His strategy was successful. In 1232 the Goryeo government transferred the capital to Ganghwa do and issued the command of'Sanseonghaedoipbo(山城海島入保),' which meant'Escape into a mountain wall or an island if finding Mongolian forces,' and at the same time installed Sanseong Banghobyeolgam(山城防護別監). People who took refuge the Gwangju Wall and the Cheoin Wall waged a chivalry battle with a Mongolian force and won a great victory. In the 3rd War the Mongolian Army attacked the northwest region and the northeast region at the same time aiming to occupy the whole country. Then the Goryeo Army maintained the strategy of defending mountain walls and at the same time made raids at night using small units of chivalry. In order to take the Jukju Wall the Mongolian Army approached the wall with oil pine wood and dry straws. Then the Goryeo Army inside the wall opened the gate and its chivalry made a raid all at once. In addition special units in the wall including those armed with hatchets killed Mongolian soldiers countlessly through close combats. In the 5th War in October 1253 the Mongolian Army surrounded the Chungju Wall for around 70 days but Banghobyeolgam Kim Yoon hoo(金允侯) defeated it in cooperation with a unit of low class soldiers(賤民軍) in the Chungju Wall. Instead of concentrating defending the Chungju Wall he ambushed chivalry outside the wall and confronted the approaching enemies. On the other hand in the 6th War when Charade attacked the Chungiu Wall in September 1254 the Goryeo Army defeated them by launching chivalry taking advantages of an opportune storm.

조선 초기 수원도호부의 마목장 설치 연구

이홍두(Yi, Hong-du) 국방부 군사편찬연구소 2018 군사 Vol.- No.106

When Ming dynasty claimed the sovereignty of Tamra to take over Jeju Ranch, Taejong regarded it as a military crisis and transferred 2,000 stallions of Jeju Ranch to Jindo and Ganghwado. And he had a horse ranch installed on the coast and islands of the mainland. Sejong inherited Taejong’s intention of installing mainland horse ranches and installed horse ranches in Hongwon peninsula of Namyang bay and in several islands. Suwon Dohobu’s horse ranch installation consists of three parts. The first one is the background of horse ranch installation. Here we consider why the early Joseon was more active in horse ranch installation than Goryeo dynasty. Goryeo dynasty also needed cavalries to cope with the northern province like the early Joseon, but, Yeojin tributed Daldan horses to the early Goryeo, so the installation of horse ranches was not urgent. On the other hand, in the Yuan dynasty interference period, Mongol horses were brought to Goryeo to install horse ranches on coasts and islands all over the country, but most of the horse ranches were abolished in the late Goryeo by seizing fodders and war horses. The second one is Suwon Dohobu’s Hongwon cape, Yangya cape, and Pungdo ranches. Hongwon cape ranch was installed as a cattle ranch to grow cattle in the 13th year of Sejong, but was abolished 10 years later. However, Saboksi installed Wegu (外廐) there and grazed Naeguma horses. Yangya cape and Pungdo ranch were national level of horse ranches. For the matter of managing these two ranches, Suwon Dohobu of Gyesugwan and Namyangdohobu that was under the jurisdiction of Suwon Dohobu were confronted. The third one is the horse ranch installation of Namyangdohobu under the jurisdiction of the Suwon Dohobu. Namyangdohobu was subordinated to Suwon Dohobu is based on the historical data, “Dohobu is one, Namyang” for Suwon Dohobu’s jurisdiction in “Sejong Sillok” Jiriji. There were 10 horse ranches belonging to Namyangdohobu, but Seongjong moved Deokjeokdo, Sayado ranch to Incheon Dohobu, Soholdo ranch to Ansan‐gun, and Pungdo ranch to Suwon Dohobu in the 17th year of Seongjong. And Yeongjongpo Manho, under the command of Namyangdohobu Gwado Sugun Cheomjeoljesa, a camp chief of military camp, also served as a ranch supervisor for six horse ranches. Chojiryang Manho also served as ranch supervisor for Soholdo and Ijakdo ranch under the direction of Seongjong.

高句麗의 鮮卑族戰爭과 騎兵戰術―특히 前燕ㆍ後燕ㆍ隋戰爭을 중심으로―

이홍두(Yi Hong-Du) 한국사학회 2004 史學硏究 Vol.- No.75

Jeonyeon(前燕) was the first regime founded by Seonbijok(鮮卑族), From the tactical aspect, it meant that the main force switched from chariots pulled by horses to cavalry riding the horses. Jeonyeon, Huyeon and Sill, which were branches of Seonbijok, organized cavalry as their main force and strengthened cooperation between the infantry and the cavalry, and invaded Koguryo several tunes However, Koguryo organized a strong cavalry unit armed with Gwahama(果下馬) and Maekgung(貊弓) It coped with the invasions first through defensive wars of "defend first fight second(先守後戰)" based on mountain fortresses, and when the enemy troops were demoralized attacked them with the cavalry. Moyonghwang(幕容?) of Jeonyeon Invaded Koguryo in 342. At that tune, Koguryo could be reached through the plane northern route(北道) or though the rugged narrow southern route(南道). Moyounghwang deployed ills main force In the southern route defended by 15,000 weak soldiers rather than the northern route guarded by 50,000 elite troops, and took Hwando-seong(丸都城) Main factors of the victory of Jeonyeon's army were: first, the spearhead composed of cavalry soldiers Spied out the landform and the condition of Koguryo and reported to the main body of the troops, second, they held the initiative of war by isolating and falling Mokjeo-seong(木底城) near Sojaha(小子河) from which Koguryo's southern route began, and third, the mobility of Jeonyeon's cavalry was enhanced as the troops went to war ill November when the river froze. On the other hand, the defeat of Koguryo's army resulted from differences ill fighting power between the two countries. That is, Jeonyeon's army introduced cavalry tactics of nomadic tribes as well as chariots of the Han race and, as a result, Its destructive power was significantly augmented Koguryo, however, relied on Its steep topographic condition and did not attached Jeonyeon's army from the side or the rear, Moyongseong(幕容盛), the king of Huyeon attacked Koguryo in 399 and fell Sin-seong(新城) and Namso-seong(南蘇城). The main reason for the defect of Koguryo's army was that Sin-seong was in an open land where the cavalry and chariot units earned out united operations. However, Koguryo won the victory at three wars in 401, 404 and 405. It was owed to Gwanggaeto(廣開土) the Great's fortification of the whole land through the expansion of armament and the development of strategies and tactics. The Sill Dynasty invaded Koguryo four nines. Its first invasion was with 300,000 naval and army forces in 598. Koguryo first stopped the enemy in Muryeora-seong and then prevented Sui's army from crossmg the Yoha(遼河) River at the east Side of nver At last, Sui's forces failed and withdrew to their own country. The second invasion was in 612, mobilizing 2,000,000 soldiers. Outnumbered, the Koguryo army responded thtough defensive strategies behind the wait The first confrontation was at Ogol-seong At that time, Koguryo anny attached Sui's military supply units that transported munitions, In addition General Euljimundeok(乙支文德)'s won the battle through an ambush strategy. The third invasion was in 613 led by Emperor Yangje(煬帝) himself, but Koguryo crushed tens of thousands of Sui's soldiers who were retreating in Yosu(遼水).

조선전기 호마의 조련과 기마전

이홍두(Yi, Hong Du) 역사실학회 2018 역사와실학 Vol.67 No.-

조선시대 호마는 고려전기 여진의 달단마와 고려 말 원나라 몽고마가 그 연원이다. 그동안 조선시대 호마는 궁중의 내구마에 한정하였으나, 필자는 내구마로 간택되지 못해 각 고을에 보낸 분양마, 영진의 군사에게 지급한 전마, 동절기의 여러 목장에서 각 고을에 보낸 목장마를 호마로 규정하였다. 내구마 조련은 태종대 중반까지는 내승이, 태종대 후반은 겸사복이 주도하였다. 겸사복은 마상무예를 겸비한 사복이 상호군‧호군‧첨총제‧행사직 등과 같은 관직을 겸직하면서 시작되었다. 특히 세조대 겸사복은 지위가 급속히 상승했는데, 호마목장의 설치, 호마의 조련, 창덕궁 후원마 사육 등을 그 통로로 이용하였다. 성종대에는 내사복시의 위상이 강화됨으로써 내승이 겸사복을 감찰하는 지위를 회복하였다. 각 고을의 분양마 제도는 궁중의 내구마와 동절기의 목장마가 그 시초이다. 당시 각 고을에서는 수용할 수 있는 분양마를 남기고 여분의 분양마를 북방과 영진의 무재가 있으나 말이 없는 군사에게 지급하였다. 한편 내구마와 분양마로 지칭되는 준마는 어가의 행차나 실전과 같은 기마전을 통해 조련의 강도를 심화시켰다. 국왕이 타는 어가는 大駕와 法駕 및 少駕가 있는데, 각 어가는 좌우에 세우는 어마의 숫자에 차이가 있으며, 국왕의 행차에는 수많은 방패와 깃발 및 고각이 동원되었다. 따라서 평소 어마를 길들일 때 깃발과 고각소리에 눈과 귀가 익숙하도록 조련하였다. 내구마와 군사들의 전마는 훈련형식의 마상무예를 통해 조련의 성과를 이루었다. 임란왜란 이후 동아삼국은 전쟁에서 대포와 총을 사용하였다. 특히 조선의 군사가 포를 쏘면 화염 때문에 앞을 분간할 수가 없었고, 폭발음이 커서 여진의 기병이 혼비백산하였다. 따라서 양란 이후 군사들의 전마 조련은 말이 대포와 총소리에 익숙하도록 훈련하였다. The origin of Homa horses in Joseon era is from Yeojin`s Daldanma horses at early Goryeo era and Mongo horses of Yuan Dynasty at late Goryeo era. In the meantime, Homa horses in Joseon era were limited to Naeguma horses in court, but this study defined Bunyangma horses not selected as Naeguma horses but sent to each village, war horses sent to Yeongjin military, and ranch horses sent to each village from various ranches in the winter season were as Homa horses. Naeseumi horses were trained by Naeseungi until the middle of king Taejong, and were trained by Gyeomsabok in late King Taejong era. Gyeomsabok started as Sabok, who had horse martial arts, took an office such as Sanghogun-Hogun-Cheomchongje-Haengsajik. In King Sejong era, in particular, the status of Gyeomsabok rapidly increased, and it used installation of Homa horse ranches, training of Homa horses, breeding of Changdeokgung Huwonma horses as a pathway. In King Seongjong era, Naesaboksi`s status was reinforced and the status to supervise Naeseungi Gyeomsabok was restored. The beginning of Bunyangma horse system of each village is Naeguma horses of court and ranch horses of winter season. At the time, Bunyangma horses were left in each village that could afford to receive, and extra Bunyangma horses were sent to the soldiers in the Yanggye region and Yeongjin with Mujae but without the horses. The strength of training of Homa horses, also called Naeguma horses and Bunyangma horses, was intensified through the use of king"s royal coach coming or horse battles such as real combats. The royal coach of the king consisted of Daega(大駕), Beopga(法駕) and Soga(少駕), and each royal coach had a different number of royal horses on its left and right, and there were numerous shields, flags, and horns mobilized. So, usually when royal horses were tamed, their eyes and ears were trained to familiarize with the flags and horn sounds. The Naeguma horses and the war horses of the soldiers were trained through a training type of horse combat. After Imranwaeran, east Asian three countries used cannons and guns in the war. Especially when Joseon`s military shot cannons, they could not distinguish the front due to the flames, and the explosion sounded so hard that Yeojin`s cavalry got frightened out of their senses. Therefore, after Yangran, the military trained war horses to get accustomed to being familiar with cannons and gunshots.

호마의 전래와 조선시대 호마목장의 설치

이홍두(Yi, Hong-Du) 국방부 군사편찬연구소 2016 군사 Vol.- No.99

Horses in the Joseon Dynasty are largely divided into native Jeju horses and northern Manchurian horses. Since Jeju horses were not able to bear the weight of the horse armor and heavily armed cavalryman, large-sized Manchurian horses were used for the the cavalry. Manchurian horses were classified by Central Asian horses, Daldan-ma horses(韃靼馬-highland wild horses), and Mongolian horses. Central Asian horses were imported in the Period of the Korean Three Kingdoms, and Daldan-ma horses were imported from Jurchen through tribute trade in the early Koryo Dynasty. The number of tributes through which Jurchen paid horses during the period from King Jeongjong (945~949) to Yejong (1105~1122) was 127, and the number of tributary horses was approximately 4~5,000 heads. In the late Koryo Dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty brought Daldan-ma horses to Tamra-do Island and installed Mongolian-style ranches there. In addition, it brought 150 Daldanma horses and distributed them to ranches throughout the country, and this increased the number of Manchurian horses in the country. As the diplomatic relationship with Jurchen was broken in the Joseon Dynasty, Manchurian horses could not be imported directly from Jurchen and only a small number of Manchurian horses were available through private trade. Even the private trading of Manchurian horses was prohibited from the reign of King Seongjong, and this accelerated the miniaturization of Manchurian horses. Under the rule of King Sejong, a male Manchurian horse was traded with two female Jeju horses. In the Joseon Dynasty, horse ranches were installed as one of King Taejong’s efforts to secure war horses because the trade of Manchurian horses with Jurchen was stopped and Ming confiscated the Jeju ranch. Taejong moved 1,800 male and female Manchurian horses from the Jeju ranch to Jin-do Island in Jeolla-do, and 100 heads to Mt. Gilsang in Ganghwa-do Island. In addition, King Sejong installed Sindo and Boeumdo Ranches in islands affiliated to Ganghwa-do Island, and pastured Manchurian horses, and prohibited the colts from being carried out of the islands for preserving the breed. King Sejo expanded the Jangbong-do Ranch in Ganghwa-do Island exclusively for Manchurian horses, and distributed colts from the ranch as breeding horses to other major ranches throughout the country. From King Seongjong, however, ranches were closed and instead government fields were installed, and this reduced the number of Manchurian horses gradually. The closure of horse ranches undermined the military power, and as a result, the country could not avoid Japanese invasion of 1592-1599 and Qing’s invasions. In the late Joseon Dynasty, Kings Sukjong and Jeongjo promoted the northern expedition policy, and installed the cavalry to content with Qing’s Eight Banners and this increased the number of Manchurian horses temporarily. As horse ranches had to be closed for arable lands, however, the production of Manchurian horses had to decrease gradually.

고려전기의 화폐 주조와 유통정책

이홍두(Yi Hong-Du) 역사실학회 2005 역사와실학 Vol.28 No.-

In the Goryeo Dynasty, King Seongjong minted iron coins, and King Sukjong minted and circulated copper coins and silver bottles. At that time, the issue of coinage was demanded by the development of goods distribution. The mintage and circulation of coinage in the early Goryeo Dynasty had two purposes. One was to disintegrate major clans' united political power and to strengthen the king' s sovereignty, and the other was to restore economy that had been impoverished by wars. King Seongjong issued iron coins in the 15th year of King Dong (996). It was to meet financial demand for waging six times of war against Georan. Using coinage for financial expenses, the government could preserve goods of real value such as rice and textile. King Mokjong who ascended the throne in 998 inherited Seongjong's coinage circulation policy but the circulation of coins, which had been used for 7 years, was almost stopped except partial use at restaurants selling teas and liquors. During the reign of King Sukjong after around 90 years since the stoppage of circulation, Jujeondogam(鑄錢都監) was installed and minted copper coins and silver bottles, and established laws related to mintage. The reason for Sukjong to mint coinage was the development of commerce and industry, which demanded the expansion of goods distribution. Particularly from the period of King Munjong, economic power was enhanced rapidly and this required the efficient circulation of coinage. Copper coins were named by combining 'Haedong,' 'Dongguk' or 'Samhan,' which meant Goryeo, with 'Tongbo' or 'Jungbo.' Copper coins were shaped round and had a square hole at the center, and their name was embossed on the surface. On the other hand, the country minted silver bottles from the 6th year of King Sukjong and circulated them until the end of the Goryeo Dynasty. During the reign of King Sukjong, mintage was led by Chief Priest Euicheon and Yoon Gwan, the king's closest aides, but it was opposed strongly by Gwak Sang, the governor of Seogyong. The reason for the opposition was that the prohibition of the use of flax would make it difficult for people to exchange goods. However, the real reason was the fear of a high increase in taxes resulting from the circulation of coinage. The introduction of coinage is a reform of object economy, reflecting the flexibility and compositeness of economy admitting the coinage. Thus, the mintage and circulation of coinage in the early Goryeo Dynasty was a rare opportunity for reforming object economy in those days and developing the distribution of goods further. However, the circulation of copper coins failed. The reasons for the failure can be found in immaturity of goods manufacturing and distribution, underdevelopment of mines, limited trade with outsides, nondistinction between the high and low grades of copper coins, etc.

高麗時代의 軍制와 僧軍

이홍두(Yi, Hong-Du) 백산학회 2005 白山學報 Vol.- No.72

The present study examined the process of the embodiment of Suwon monks in military service in the Koryo Dynasty, dividing it into three parts. First, we examined the monk army under Bubyeong system(府兵制) in the early Koryo Dynasty. The military activities of the monk army had been from the Period of the Three Kingdoms, but they became more active in the Koryo Dynasty. Suwon monks in the early Koryo Dynasty were common people in charge of labor service but did not do military service. In wartime, however, the government levied them and embodied in the regular army. The monk army had prominent fighting power. The army achieved brilliant war results at the Seogyeong Battle in the 2nd war between Koryo and Georan in the 1st year of King Hyeonjong (1010), and made a great contribution to defeating Geumsan’s(金山) army of the Ryo(遼) Dynasty in the 3rd year of King Gojong (1216). Second, we examined the Hangma Army(降魔軍) belonging to Byeolmuban(別武班) in the period of King Sukjong. The Koryo Dynasty organized Byeolmuban in the 9th year of King Sukjong (1104) to cope with the cavalry of Yeojin(女眞). Byeolmuban was composed of Singi Army(神騎軍), Sinbo Army(神步軍), Special Army and Hangma Army(降魔軍). The Hangma Army consisted mainly of Suwon monks. Until now, the Hangma Army has been regarded as infantry. However, because Byeolmuban was created in preparation against the cavalry of Yeojin, it is highly possible that the Hangma Army is cavalry. On the other hand, historical record that those who escaped from military service pretended to be monks and engaged in stock farming suggests that the Hangma Army might be a cavalry unit. Third, we examined the monk army as a private army during the military regime. The coup de tat by military ministers in the Koryo Dynasty transformedthe society from Shilla-centered to Koguryo-centered. The political change brought the shift of generation from the Gyo sect(敎宗) to the Zen sect(禪宗) in the circle of Buddhism. The Gyo sect, which lost its vested rights, stood against the military regime, putting up the monk army that was a private army. On the other hand, the military regime adhered to the Zen sect confronting the Gyo sect. This is why Choi Chung-heon(崔忠獻) supported Suseon-sa Temple(修禪社)