명대 북경의 사찰 造營과 宦官

徐仁範(Seo In-Beom) 동양사학회 2006 東洋史學硏究 Vol.96 No.-

Throughout the history of China, the periods of Han, Tang and Ming dynasties have been considered quite exceptional III terms of evil influences originated by the eunuchs. The Ming dynasty period was even more exceptional. Even though the Founder of the dynasty . Emperor Hongwu, had strictly banned the recruiting of eunuchs or appointing them to governmental positions, based upon the lessons from the past, Emperor Yongle, who ascended to the throne through a political takeover which IS usually referred to as the Incident of Jingnan, the act of eliminating a threat and stabilizing the country), defied the principles of his father and started to appoint eunuchs to national positions, which led to the first of several steps headed for the weakening and the eventual fall of the dynasty. He opened a special office for the eunuchs named Dongchang, and had the eunuchs oversee the status of the governmental officials. Also, during the reigning period of Emperor Zhengtong, the government dispatched eunuchs to local headquarters along the border(Bianzhen) and had them control the army. And during the reigning period of Emperor Chenghua, another special office for the eunuchs named Xichang was established as well. The eunuchs were granted with literally unlimited power, and they strongly asked the emperors to construct Buddhist temples or renovate the existing ones. They also ventured to build Buddhist temples themselves using their financial abilities or donating their own residences. The reason they were so active in this kind of activities was because they had to establish a place where memorial services for themselves would be held after their deaths. So in the effort of securing places where they will be buried, and where incenses would be burned in prayers to the Buddha(Xianghuo), temples were repaired and constructed. The eunuchs were at the side of the emperors, but they were also lonely creatures. They were at the center of power, and were witnessing not only the rise and fall of dynasties but also living and dying of governmental officials. In essence, they were living and dying by the principle of universally retributive justice. In many cases In which eunuchs were involved In constructing Buddhist temples or temples' renovation, the emperors bestowed a hanging board with calligraphy. Also, high ranking officials with necessary knowledge, such as the Libushangshu(禮部尙書) officials who were usually in charge of ceremonial events and protocols and also oversaw the operations of the Senglusi office(the office which directed the Buddhist priests and regulated the Buddhist society), or the Daxueshi figures of the time and other celebrated writers, were put in charge of drafting the contents of those calligraphy documenting the process of construction or renovation. The eunuchs were trying to ensure that their legacy would survive the passage of time, and for them the best way to ensure that was to secure the insertion of names of high ranking officials or great writers in their epitaphs or inscriptions meant for them or structures built by them. On the other hand, the governmental officials or the Shenshi figures(gentry), who had the experience and academic decree, had their own agenda in cooperating with the eunuchs by agreeing to draft such epitaphs and inscriptions. They wanted to expand the range of their political influence. During the Ming dynasty period, gifted people could have a living by offering their service in the form of writing. In other words, they usually engaged in the so-called 「Runbi (潤筆)」 practice. And when the client was a eunuch, the pay was much more decent. For example, when local officials tried to pay a tribute to the central government, the eunuchs usually asked for a bribe. Prisoners who were sentenced to death could buy themselves out by bribing the eunuchs. Eunuch Liujin, who was only in power for mere six or seven years asked people who wanted to pay a visit to the emperor to pay 4, 500

명(明) 선덕(宣德)·정통연간(正統年間)의 세량(稅糧) 감면과 재정(財政) 상황

서인범 ( In-beom Seo ) 이화여자대학교 이화사학연구소 2021 梨花史學硏究 Vol.- No.62

Was one of the factors behind the implementation of the juanna system(捐納制) in the mid-Ming period was a financial shortage? I analyzed the measures for the tax reduction in the era of Xuande and Zhentong when disasters began to occur frequently to prove my hypothesis. I tried to show the proportion of tax reductions and exemptions in each region and how much it accounted for the total finance of Ming dynasty. Ultimately, I attempted to show the trend of the finance in Ming dynasty. The targets of tax reductions were lands of government and civilians and lands cultivated by soldiers. Taxes on government-owned land were reduced by three-tenths approximately. Taxes on civilian-owned land and land for soldiers were reduced by two-tenths to five-tenths approximately. However, tax reductions were differed depending on the time, region, and size of the disaster. In the total tax revenues from the north territories to the territories of Huanan(華南) and Xinan(西南), the reduction rate accounted for 20 to 30 percent in general. It is the reduction of the so-called “two-tenths to three-tenths” written in the Annals of the Ming Dynasty. Also, it is true that there have been cases of reduction of five-tenths or more. In particular, the territory of Jiang Huai(江淮) was known as one of the most heavy taxes supported the finances of Ming dynasty. Approximately it accounted for 38% of the total budget. The disaster in the area immediately dealt a heavy blow to the finances of the Ming dynasty. I analyzed how much the proportion of tax reductions accounted for Ming's finances. The tax reduction of seventh year of Xuande accounted for 8.8 percent of total tax revenue. The tax reduction of fifth year of Zhentong accounted for 11 percent of it. In particular, a huge amount of money was appropriated for military forces to strengthen the Beijing defense system or the peripheral defense system. It was due to the affair in which the emperor was taken prisoner in the 14th year of Zhentong. Since the second half of the reign of Zhentong, financial pressure has intensified.

청 강희제의 (개해정책)開海政策과 조선 (서해해역)西海海域의 (황당선)荒唐船

서인범 ( In Beom Seo ) 이화사학연구소 2015 梨花史學硏究 Vol.0 No.50

Kangxi, the fourth Emperor of the Qing dynasty, decided to lift the ban on maritime trade, after having succeeded in taking power from Zhengchenggong(鄭成功) who had commanded the seas. His new policy made chinese ships called Hwangdangseon(荒唐船), intrude frequently into the waters under jurisdiction of the Joseon dynasty. The year of the 1701 marked a watershed in the history of the penetration into Joseon`s waters of chinese ships. They made frequent appearance mostly in western coastal areas of Seoghae(西海) Province on a large scale to organize convoys. There were seventy to eighty crews on board for a ship and one hundred for a bigger ship. They came in April when the wind becomes gentle and withdrew in August when the wind blows hard. The departing points of Chinese fishing boats were Dengzhou(登州) Subprefecture and Laizhou(萊州) Subprefecture in Shandong(山東), Liadong(遼東) coast`s Haizhou(海州) area ruled by Shengjing-general(盛 京將軍) and Fengtian(奉天) police department, and Gakhwa island(覺華 島) that was the last destination of Joseon`s envoy. Main reasons for the rapid increase of the penetration into Joseon`s waters of chinese ships are as follows. The first reason is that the ban on maritime trade by Kangxi Emperor was lifted so that people could go fishing and trade. Secondly, natural disasters occurred in Shandong province around the year of 1701. In addition, the displacement of the fish and the sea cucumber fishing also played their role in that increase. Sea cucumber is edible and used as an invigorant. Furthermore, it was traded by many merchants. Since it has dyeing function, Chinese ships were eager to get it in the western sea, even disobeying the ban on maritime trade. The intrusion into the Joseon`s waters on a large scale by chinese ships turned into a diplomatic dispute between Joseon and Qing. Joseon tried to settle the problem by addressing a diplomatic letter called Ziwen(咨文) to the Ministry of Rites(禮部) of the Qing dynasty, saying that Chinese ships penetrated into Joseon`s waters under the pretext of fishing. However, Ziwen`s(咨文) effect was temporary and limited. Chinses ships did not stopped frequenting Joseon waters so that Joseon took a little stronger measure of sending Zouwen(奏文). Or Joseon informed the chinese emperor of the truth and asked him to solve that problem. The analysis of Kangxi emperor`s handling the penetration into Joeson`s waters by chinese ships reveals that Shengjing-general replaced the role of the governor of Liadong in Ming dynasty. Shengjing-general had responsibility for governing not only the territory of Shengjing area but also the seas.

명 말 숭정연간(崇禎年間)의 재정과 군비 조달 - 가파(加派)와 연납(捐納) 등을 중심으로 -

서인범 ( Seo In-beom ) 명청사학회 2015 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.44

Over the second and third years of Chongzhen emperor the large number of Jurchen attacked and drove Peking under martial law. In the third year, BI zì yan, the Minister of Revenue, again raised the taxation by 3 li(釐) from per mu(畝) 9 li(釐) to cover the war expenditure. At the same time BI zì yan(畢自嚴) also levied a tax on the eight prefectures of Hebei province which had been exempted from taxation. Due to the increased tax, people were in extreme need during the years of Chongzhen reign. The officials pressed the populace for more tax with a loud voice in the field. People were tragically forced to traffic in their children and split the bones for firewood. Along with the increased tax, local students were required to pay annual grain(稅糧) 2 dan(石) and corvee(徭役) for 2 man(丁), which had not been levied for the past years. In other word the government launched a new taxation on local students. And the Juanna system for them continued to supply financial resources. Considering the increased taxation, the levy of tax on local students, and the change of the Juanna system, we could find two main features of the financial situation during the reign of Chongzhen emperor(崇禎帝). Firstly, officials in charge of the Ministry of Revenue thought that tax increase should be the best way to secure more financial resources. Secondly, the rich and the gentry were liable for taxation, regardless of tax increase, student taxation or the Juanna system. It was military or civilians Junxiu(俊秀) or Junxiu’s children, student of the Imperial College(監生), students in feudal society(生員), and petty official(胥吏), who were the object for taxation to cover the invasion of the Jurchen and natural disaster of farmers, as BI zì yan, the Minister of Revenue, then understood that the rich and the gentry must be the people with a fortune and a heavy tax.

오대산 사고와 사고본의 가치 명실록(明實錄)의 간행(刊行),수장(收藏)과 조선(朝鮮) 유입

서인범 ( In Beom Seo ) 동국대학교 동국역사문화연구소 2014 동국사학 Vol.57 No.-

In the history of China, annals were a manuscript that was kept to record chronologically the daily accounts and national affairs of emperors during reign. Ming dynasty also compiled its annals according to the tradition of previous empires. When emperors died, successors usually made a collection of departmental materials and local literatures of the predecessors`` time and published them following the conventional examples of their ancestral rulers. As a result, the histories of thirteen emperors were fully written in the annals of Taejo to Heejong. The annals of Ming dynasty were also brought to Chosun. In the 29th year of Sunjo reign, an envoy to Peking bought the annals of Ming dynasty and returned to chosun with the annals the following year. Yet the location of ‘The Annals of Ming Dynasty’ is unknown at the present time. According to the research of a Japanese scholar, the annals were transferred to Bongmodang of the Changdok palace and preserved there in the late time of Japanese Occupation, after the Occupations, their whereabouts was missing. All one could confirm the present moment are only few of film materials of ‘The Annals of Ming Dyansty’, pictured in 1933. To day, the only way to obtain the information of the films is by logging in the Korean History On-Line System and putting in the search term.

명 중기의 賣牒制 연구

徐仁範(Seo In-Beom) 동양사학회 2003 東洋史學硏究 Vol.85 No.-

Zhuyuanzhang(朱元璋), Ming(明)'s founding father and first emperor, had a special religious and political ideology which was based on the Unification of Three Religions(三敎合一) such religions as Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism. And so, his buddhist approach was based on in this unifying-oriented movement about religions. In order to control all the temples and buddhists in the dynasty, at the 14 years of his reign, he founded Senglusi(僧錄司: the Supervise Administration of Buddhism and Taoism) in Nanjing(南京), and did several agencies in the lower provincial sects such as Fu(府), Zhou(州) and Xian(縣). Furthermore, Only one great temple could be selected to dispense Authorized Buddhist Certification Seal's Sale within Fu, Zuou and Xian, and Only one master about the buddhist texts could be selected to the Authorized Buddhist Certification Seal. After him, emperor Yingledi(永樂帝) ordered to extend the issue period about Authorized Buddhist Certification Seal from three to five years in order to prevent the growing of buddhist numbers. In the reign of Yingzong(英宗), firstly juannazhi(捐納制: the substitution system of forced labor duty) began to collect relief funds of famine. But after Tumu Incident(土木堡 樂), that had caused national insecurity, juannazhi had been largely enforced to supply and use in the military expenditure. Also, within this system, the Authorized Buddhist Certification Seal's Sale had been enlarged. As the Authorized Buddhist Certification Seal's Sale was increased, early Ming ' s buddhist laws could not keep their original forms. Traditionally, There were many kinds of the Authorized Buddhist Certification Seal's Sale in the Ming's dynasty. In addition to these traditional customs, one unique buddhist seal sale happened. it was the eunuch whose power became more and more powerful during Ming dynasty. They also had sold the Authorized Buddhist Certification Seal. Most of them believed in buddhism. And so they eagerly slod the Seal to the monks. Moreover, They had many buddhists temples in the nearing areas of the capital, Beijing, to go the Paradise Heaven(極樂) after the death of their bodies and souls. On the while, in the middle period of Ming's dynasty, the badly-balanced distribution made many people poor, which eventually destroyed Ming's traditional Rural System. Also, this dynasty had to prevent northern invaders who, after Tumun Incident, penetrated the dynasty's inner parts. Therefore, Ming had reconstructed between the Northern and the Capital Defense Systems. So, a lot of money was needed. One plan was to sold the Authorized Buddhist Certification Seal's Sale to the buddhists monks. But, so many sales of the Seals led to diminish Ming's traditional standard Tax System such tax unites as general people tax unit(民戶), soldier unit(軍戶), craft unit(匠戶) and salter unit(?戶), etc. And so, Ming's first king, Hongwu(洪武) enforced through the Chinese Traditional Nation Laws(祖法)to diminish the buddhists' exemption of many kind of taxes. Finally, emperors' court protested that buddhist policy should be revised to prevent buddhists from intervening empire's various aspects. For example, buddhists used to rush into capital areas. and they in these sections would rise wheat price, sometimes they became a theft, moreover, they caused to incite people's disturbances. Specially, I agreed in this article to Mano Senryu(間野潛龍), a well-known historian, who said that this dynasty's renewal emperor, Xiaozong(孝宗)’s radical buddhist policy was based on not disusing all the temple in the dynasty but prohibiting new buddhists temples' construction. And so, I insisted that the Authorized Buddhist Certification Seal's Sale was continued through this middle period of the dynasty.

明 宣德・正統年間의 재해 발생과 流民・逃戶

徐仁範(Seo, In-Beom) 동양사학회 2020 東洋史學硏究 Vol.153 No.-

It is about 60 to 70 years after from Hongwu Emperor(洪武帝), who is the first king of Ming(明) dynasty, founded the country. In the era of Xuande(宣德, 1426∼1435) and Zhengtong(正統, 1436∼1449), The country suffered from various natural disasters such as drought, flood, locusts, epidemic, earth quake and blizzard. From early to middle period of Ming dynasty, the whole Earth suffered from drought and famine every year because its climate changed into Little Ice Age from Cold Age. The climate was colder and drier than Yuan(元) dynasty, so its precipitation was little and the number of drought disasters was bigger than ever before. Disasters occur by various causes in sort of nature, geography, climate and water system, so their amount and scale can be dramatically different. In this thesis, I research natural disasters during fifth and seventh year of Xuande and sixth to seventh year of Zhengtong when the tax exemption rate rapidly increased. For a convenient research, I divide the territories of the country into four parts. Firstly, the north territories such as Shǎnxī(陝西), Shānxī(山西), Ningxia(寧夏) and Liaodōng(遼東) where are the most dangerous land because of Mongolia and Jurchen’s threat. Second part is the north of Huaihe(淮河); particularly BeiZhili(北直隷), Henan(河南) and Shandong(山東). Third part is the territory of Jiang Huai(江淮) where was known as one of the most heavy taxes, and it includes NanZhili(南直隷), Jiangsu(江蘇), Zhejiang (浙江), Jiāngxi(江西), Anhui(安徽) and Huguang(湖廣). Last part of the division is Huanan(華南) and Xinan(西南) where the minority lived land such as Fujian(福建), Guangdong(廣東), Guangxi(廣西), Sichuan (四川), Guizhou(貴州) and Yunnan(雲南). After the era of Xuande, disasters of flood, drought and locusts occurred every year. According to the numbers of disasters, in the fifth to seventh year of Zhengtong. BeiZhili, Shandong, NanZhili, Shanxi and Huanan had serious damage and Guangxi, Guizhou and Yunnan had relatively lesser damage than them. People who suffered from disasters lost their own homes and wondered around to survive. When I analyze local papers of each seventh year of Xuande and Zhengtong, I could find out decrease of population in the north territory of Huanan and Xinan. Henan is the only state where population increase appeared because of the influx of people from Shanxi and Shandong. The primary problem was people who had to make salt and guard their states made huge escape, and ordinary people who must serve for the dynasty also escaped.

조선시대 승려들의 압록강 월경사건(越境事件)

서인범 ( In Beom Seo ) 한국사상문화학회 2010 韓國思想과 文化 Vol.54 No.-

본고는 조선 후기 越境者를 국경에서 梟首하거나 流配 조치를 취하는 전단계의 월경 문제를 승려의 경우를 통해 엿보았다. 명조와 조선 양국은 승려의 압록강 월경문제를 어떻게 인식하고 처리하였는가? 또한 조선 승려들은 어떠한 목적으로 요동으로 들어갔는가? 조선은 이들을 어떻게 처벌하였는가? 승려의 월경사건으로 압록강과 연해 있는 평안도지역의 승려나 사찰 운용은 어떻게 변화 했는가 등에 대해 추적하여 조선시대의 불교정책의 일단면을 도출하려고 시도하였다. 명 초 遼東의 승려가 조선에 들어왔다 스파이로 몰려 발각되어 처형당한 사건이 벌어졌다. 명조가 창립되었을 당시 홍무제는 조선에 대해 의구심과 불신감이 팽배해 있었다. 명조가 아직 중국 내지를 완전하게 장악하지 못한 상황 하에서, 鄭道傳의 요동지역 영토 회복이라는 발언은 홍무제를 성내게 하는 요인이 되었던 것이다. 홍무제는 요동지역을 수비하는 邊將들에게 조선 사신의 입국도 금지시키는 동시에, 조선을 엄히 방비할 것을 諭示하였다. 그리고 요동도사의 公署가 있던 遼陽의 附郭인 東寧衛를 설치하여 요동지역에 거주하던 고려 출신 백성을 여기에 편성시켜 조선과의 왕래를 차단하였다. 이처럼 양국이 서로를 신뢰하지 못하는 관계 속에서 요동의 승려는 참형을 당하였던 것이다. 양국 간의 긴장이 고조된 상태 하에서 명조만이 아니라, 조선의 승려들도 압록강을 넘어 요동으로 들어갔다. 조선 승려들이 월경한 이유를 요약하면 다음과 같다. 첫째, 승려들이 江界·泥城·義州·宣州 이북의 초막에 거주하면서 압록강을 넘어 商行爲를 통해 이익을 얻으려고 하였다. 둘째, 조선이 崇儒抑佛 정책을 시행하자 중국으로 넘어가 명조에 의지하여 佛道를 널리 펼치려고 하였다. 셋째, 요동지역의 뛰어난 사찰이나 빼어난 풍광에 매료되어 유람을 목적으로 넘어갔다. 넷째, 요역을 피하기 위해서였다. 다만 여기서 유의해야 할 점은 월경한 승려의 실체를 명확히 할 필요가 있다는 점이다. 즉 요역을 회피하기 위해, 혹은 범죄자가 처벌을 피해 승려로 가장하고 요동지역으로 흘러들어 간 경우를 염두에 두어야 한다. 다음으로 태종연간(1400~1418)에 월경한 조선 출신 승려는 杖 100 대에 乃而浦(웅천) 船軍에 충군되었다. 그런데 성종연간(1470~1494) 이후 요역 회피 등의 다양한 이유로 요동으로 도망간 승려의 처벌이 엄격해졌다. 요동도사는 승려를 조선으로 송환시키자 곧바로 義禁府에서 推鞫하여 `斬不待時’에 처해졌다. 즉 사형을 집행할 때 秋分까지 기다리는 것이 원칙이나, 大惡·大罪 등 重罪를 범한 죄인의 경우에는 이에 구애받지 않고 형을 집행하였다. 그러나 임금은 天變을 이유로 사형을 감해주었다. 또한 월경한 승려 본인만이 아니라 부모·祖孫·형제는 流 2,000리라는 嚴刑에 처해졌다. 태종연간의 형벌과는 비교가 안 될 정도로 중벌에 처해졌음을 알 수 있다. 조선 조정은 승려들이 요동으로 월경하는 원인이 寺社의 田土와 노비를 혁파하였기 때문이라 보고, 이 문제를 조정에서 계속 논의하였다. 司諫院은 요동으로 들어간 승려를 처벌하면서 월경 대책으로 첫째, 승려의 출가는 『經濟六典』에 의거하고, 둘째, 度牒의 법식을 규정하고, 셋째, 서울과 지방의 관리가 境內의 승려들을 조사하여, 함부로 移徙하지 못하도록 하고, 넷째, 隣保制를 도입하고, 승려 관계의 사무를 맡아 보는 色掌僧人을 정하여 통솔케 하고, 다섯째, 승려에게 왕래하는 기일을 적어 넣은 通行狀을 발부하여 엄격하게 할 것을 제안하였다. 이러한 방침 외에 승려의 월경 방지를 위해 압록강과 연해 있는 평안도의 義州·朔州·江界·閭延·碧潼·昌城·理山·麟山·정녕과 함길도의 慶源·鏡城·甲山 지역의 寺社를 모두 헐어 버리고 승려는 南道로 옮기는 조치를 실시하였다. This study aims to create better understanding on the Buddhist policy of the Choseon Dynasty by examining a border incident which was committed by Buddhist priests of the time in the border of the Yalu River. Some Buddhist priests crossed the border of the Yalu River and entered into the Liadong(遼東) area. They crossed the border for these reasons; firstly, some of those monks who lived in the north of Ganggye(江界), Niseong(泥城), Uiju(義州) and Seonju(宣州) crossed the border pursuing some commercial benefits. Secondly, some other group of monks went to China to avoid the anti-Buddhist policy of the Choseon Dynasty. They planned to practice Buddhism in China with the support of Ming government. Thirdly, some monks crossed the border just to visit famous temples in the Liaodong area and see the beautiful sights of the area. Fourthly, some monks went to China to avoid the mandatory labor service to which they were assigned. And some criminals who disguised themselves as a monk crossed border to avoid punishment. Thus it is very important to elucidate identities of those Buddhist priests who crossed the border. On the other hand, a monk named Haeseon(海禪) who got arrested for crossing the border was sentenced to 100 strokes of flogging and then he was deported to Ungcheon to serve as a navy man. After King Seongjong`s era (1470~1494) the punishment for crossing the border got even more strict. The government enforced a law to keep Buddhist priests from crossing the border; to join the priesthood was regulated by Gyeonjeyukjeon(經濟六典). The government enacted the Buddhist registration law named Docheop(度牒) Buddhist priests in the capital and the rural area were supervised by governors of the area and they couldn`t leave their region freely. They could only travel when they had a pass on which the term of the trip was written. Buddhist priests were also watched by their neighbors and they were under instructions of a Buddhist superintendent titled Sackjangseungin(色掌僧人). Besides all of these regulations, the government removed every temple in a border area like Uiju, Sakju(朔州), Ganggye, Yeoyeon(閭延), Byeok-dong(碧潼), Changseong(昌城), Isan(理山), Insan(麟山), Jeongnyeong in the Pyeongan Province and Kyeonwon(慶源), Kyeongseong(鏡城), Kapsan(甲山) in the Hamgil Province and areas near the Yalu River. Buddhist Monks from these areas were sent to the southern part of the country.

논문(論文) : 명대의 직염국(織染局)과 직조태감(織造太監) -소주,항주 직염국을 중심으로-

서인범 ( In Beom Seo ) 동국사학회 2008 동국사학 Vol.45 No.-

明 中期의 捐納制와 軍餉 調達

徐仁範(Seo In-beom) 역사학회 1999 역사학보 Vol.164 No.-