4차 산업혁명 시대의 도래에 따른 부정경쟁방지법의 새로운 역할 모색 - 프랑스의 기생이론을 중심으로 -

양대승 이화여자대학교 법학연구소 2018 法學論集 Vol.22 No.3

The notion of parasitism appeared as the civil sanction, the civilian complement, of the brand usurpation in France. Indeed, a trademark is protected only for a category of products filed, outside these categories there are no private rights. St Gal therefore considered that could be supplemented by parasitism. But today, parasitism is broader than this hypothesis, and could even absorb all the previous cases of unfair competition. In particular, parasitism is often invoked in case of imitation or confusion. Parasitism may concern the hypotheses where the two agents are in a competitive relationship, so it is a modality of unfair competition lawsuit, based on the tort liability provisions of articles 1240 and 1241 of the french civil code. The action may also be brought when there is no competitive relationship, which is logical because the fault-based unfair competition lawsuit requires only a fact faulty, damage and the causal relationship between fault and damage. Indeed, the issue of recognizing parasitism is whether or not to restrict the freedom of trade. The issue of how to recognize parasitism to any extent is a matter of policy decisions by taking into consideration the present situation and the future. However, in order to respond appropriately to the new and various types of unfair competition that will appear in the era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, it is necessary to introduce a new concept that can regulate unfair competition behavior more flexibly and comprehensively. 기생의 개념은 상표의 사칭에 대한 민사적 제재수단 내지 보완책으로서 프랑스에서 처음 나타났다. 사실 상표는 일정한 지정상품에 대해서만 보호된다. 따라서 지정상품 이외의 상품에 대해서는 원칙적으로 배타권이 존재하지 않는다. 생갈(Y. Saint-GAL)은 이를 기생으로 보완할 수 있다고 생각하였다. 하지만 오늘날 기생은 더 광범위하게 적용되고 있으며, 이전의 모든 부정경쟁행위를 흡수통합하고 있다. 특히 모방이나 혼동의 경우에 있어서는 기생이 자주 원용되고 있다. 두 경제주체가 경쟁관계 있다는 가정하에서는 프랑스 민법전 제1240조 및 제1241조의 불법행위책임 규정에 근거한 부정경쟁소송의 형태로 기생이 적용된다. 경쟁 관계가 없는 경우에도 기생은 적용되는데, 과실을 기반으로 하는 부정경쟁소송은 단지 과실적 행위와 손해 그리고 그 둘 사이의 인과관계만을 요하기 때문이다. 사실 기생을 인정할 지의 여부는 영업의 자유를 제한해야만 하는 것인지 그렇지 않은 것인지에 대한 문제이다. 그리고 어느 범위까지 기생을 인정할 것인지의 문제는 현재의 주어진 상황과 미래를 고려하여 정책적 결단이 풀어야 할 숙제이다. 다만 4차 산업혁명 시대에 나타나게 될 새롭고 다양한 유형의 부정경쟁행위에 적절하게 대응하기 위해서는 보다 유연하고 부정경쟁행위를 포괄적으로 규율할 수 있는 새로운 개념의 도입이 필요하다.

Egg Recognition and Rejection Ability of Azure-Winged Magpies (Cyanopica cyanus)

Seok-Jun Son,Ji-sub Kim,Jin-Won Lee,Ki-Baek Nam,Jeong-Chil Yoo 한국조류학회II 2015 한국조류학회지 Vol.22 No.2

Egg rejection is a key defense strategy that evolved in host species to overcome the detrimental effect of brood parasitism. The degree of egg rejection in host populations often reflects the history of the interaction between brood parasites and their hosts. In the present study, we conducted model egg and conspecific egg experiments in order to determine egg rejection ability in the Korean populations of Azure-winged Magpies (Cyanopica cyanus). In addition, we also monitored breeding nests of magpies to quantify intra- and inter-specific brood parasitism rates in this species. Overall, brood parasitism was rarely observed in this population of magpies. We found only one case of intra-specific brood parasitism and no cuckoo parasitism was observed among the 74 monitored nests. However, the results of artificial egg experiments demonstrated that Azure-winged Magpies have very high rejection ability against non-mimetic model eggs (96%) and mimetic conspecific eggs (30%). In conclusion, our study suggests that Azure-winged Magpies have finely-tuned egg recognition mechanisms, indicating that,in this species,the history of either intra- or inter-specific brood parasitism or both may be longer than is currently assumed. Further studies quntifying parasitism rates in other populations of this species would be necessary.

포식기생벌에 공생하는 virus-like particles에 의한 배추흰나비 면역결핍증 유발

한성식,이민호,임창용,윤태유,김지현,백종철,류문일 한국곤충학회 1996 Entomological Research Vol.26 No.3

본 연구는 배추흰나비와 포식기생벌 사이의 parasitism에 관한 일차 연구로서 숙주곤충의 면역결핍현상이 virus-like particles (VLPs)에 의하여 야기된다는 증거 제시에 집중하였다. 우선 배추흰나비의 포식기생벌은 4종으로 분류되었다. 기생벌들은 배추흰나비 유충의 측면 intersegmental fold에 수회 반복적으로 산란하였으며, 산란수는 숙주 유충의 체적과 비례하였다. Cotesia glomerata의 calyx액과 혼합시킨 sephadex bead에 대한 배추흰나비의 면역작용(캡슐형성)은 명백하게 억제되었다. 기생당한 배추흰나비의 유충체내에서 혈구들중 Plasmatocytes만이 숫적으로 급격히 감소되었다. 이어 전자현미경적 연구에서는, C. glomerata의 calyx cell과 calyx lumen에서 VLPs들이 명확하게 관찰되었으며, 배추흰나비 유충의 혈구들 중 plasmatocytes에서만 VLPs가 관찰되었다. 이것으로서 배추흰나비와 C. glomerata 사이의 parasitism은 일차적으로는 VLPs에 의하여 성립된다고 생각된다. The present study was undertaken to investigate primarily the parasitism between cabbage worm, Artogeia rapae, and parasitoid wasp species. The study particularly focused on verification of the evidence which indicates the suppression of host immune reaction caused by virus-like particles (VLPs) of parasitoid wasps. Four parasitoid wasps of A. rapae were identified; Cotesia glomerata, Teromalus puparum, Eurypoma sp., Teprastichus sp. The parasitoid wasps oviposited repeatedly on the lateral intersegmental fold of the abdomen of the host larvae by injecting their ovipositor. Number of oviposition by the parasitoids increased in proportion to the volume of the host larvae. The capsule formation of A. rapae induced by mixing calyx fluids from C. glomerata with sephadex bead was significantly inhibited. In the larval hemocytes of A. rapae, considerable decreases of plasmatocytes were noticed. In addition, electron microscopic study clearly revealed VLPs in the calyx cells and lumen. VLPs are type of viruses identified in the hemocytes of A. rapae. VLPs were detected mostly in the plasmatocytes, although a few viruses were also observed in the granulocytes. They were predominantly present in the cytoplasm of plasmatocytes. The present result clearly demonstrated an important role of virus in the parasitism between A. rapae and C. glomerata. Therefore, it is highly possible to believe that virus is the principle factor for the establishment of the parasitism between A. rapae and their parasitoid wasps.

문화자본론 관점에서 본 영화 <기생충> -현대적 아비투스 계급의 발견-

허만섭 동국대학교 영상문화콘텐츠연구원 2020 영상문화콘텐츠연구 Vol.19 No.-

This study analyzes the eight main scenes from the film “Parasite” (2019, Bong Joon-ho) through the prism of Bourdieu’s discussion of cultural capital. The results show that “Parasite” vividly visualizes the idea that, in the modern society, the boundaries between the lower and upper classes are blurred, and that discrimination is perceived culturally and intermittently. The family of a capitalist (Park Dong-ik) is only vaguely distinct from that of a worker (Kim Ki-taek, Park’s chauffeur); the superior cultural capital of Park’s family in fields such as language and education is created through the habitus shared by wealthy families. The disgust of the upper class to the habitus of the poor, which is an essential characteristic of the class structure in the cultural capital framework, appears in the film in the form of the sneaky contempt of Park’s family towards Kim family’s semi-basement odor. Kim notices the class distinctions through perceiving this contempt, and this recognition triggers bloodshed that results in Park’s death. Symbolic violence as a mechanism to force obedience to the class distinctions soon regains its control over the working family’s consciousness. Becoming an underground hermit in Park’s mansion, Kim loses his dignity, freedom, relationships, and habitus for the sake of getting the minimum nutrients for his survival. “Parasite” is based on the discussion of cultural capital, but goes beyond the obedience to the class distinctions and suggests the extreme of symbolic violence, which is considered parasitism. 이 연구는 영화 <기생충>(2019·봉준호)의 8개 주요 장면을 문화자본론의 관점에서 분석했다. 그 결과, ‘현대사회에서 계급 간 경계는 희미하게 나타나며 계급 차별은 간헐적으로만 지각된다’는 문화자본론이 이 영화에서 재현되는 점이 발견됐다. 이에 따르면, 자본가(박동익) 가족은 ‘가족 아비투스(취향)’에 따라 의식주 등 각 ‘장’에서 노동자(김기택) 가족과 ‘경계’를 만들고 ‘우월적 문화자본’을 생산한다. 빈곤층이 상류층의 문화자본을 존경하며 닮는 ‘계열체’ 양상을 보이면서 계급 차별은 ‘존재하지만 없는 듯한 양상’을 보인다. ‘무산계급의 취향에 대한 부르주아의 혐오’는 ‘김기택 가족의 반지하 냄새에 대한 박동익 가족의 은근한 멸시’로 나타난다. 이 차별에 대한 김기택의 인지는 분노와 유혈 참사로 이어진다. 그러나 지배계급에 대한 자발적 복종을 유도하는 ‘상징폭력’ 기제는 다시 노동자 가족의 의식을 지배한다. 박동익 저택 지하에 은거하게 된 김기택은 ‘숙주’로부터 생존에 필요한 최소 영양소를 얻는 대신 존엄, 자유, 관계, 아비투스를 모두 잃는다. <기생충>은 ‘계급구조로의 복종’이라는 문화자본의 기존 상상력을 뛰어넘어 ‘이 구조로의 기생’이라는 ‘상징폭력의 극단’을 제시한다. 이 연구는 <기생충>에서 ‘문화적으로 그리고 점멸식으로 나타나지만 거의 영속적으로 지속하는 현대적 아비투스 계급’을 찾아낸다. 이 과정에서 계급 관계의 주요 요소와 기생(parasitism)이라는 새 장치는 명료하게 분석된다. 이렇게 이 연구는 <기생충>에서의 발견을 토대로 ‘현대에도 계급은 존재하는가?’라는 보편적 물음에 답하고 있다.

Selective strengthening of lipid metabolism and the rapid immune response of Ostrinia furnacalis larvae parasitized by Macrocentrus cingulum

Wang Libao,Liu Xu,Han Zhaoyang,Li Shuzhong,Feng Congjing 한국응용곤충학회 2024 Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology Vol.27 No.1

The Macrocentrus cingulum is a vital endoparasitic wasp that parasites in Ostrinia furnacalis larvae. It has been widely utilized for biological control of corn borer. Although previous studies have explored how the wasps suppress the host’s immunity, further research is required to determine the impact of the wasps on the host’s lipid metabolism and activated immune response. In this study, high-throughput transcriptome sequencing, quantitative real-time PCR, and physiological and biochemical methods were used to investigate the balance between energy metabolism and immunity in parasitic systems. The results showed that specific genes linked to lipid metabolism and transportation were up-regulated in parasitized O. furnacalis larvae, including AKHR, AKH, apoLpIII, and FAS. Additionally, M. cingulum triggered immune responses in the parasitized larvae, leading to rapid recognition and the production of immunity effectors, such as Lysozyme and antimicrobial peptides, to protect against the invading wasps. The phenoloxidase (PO) activity was inhibited as a result of parasitization. Parasitism selectively promoted lipid metabolism and activated the immune recognition response, significantly up-regulated immune pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and effector genes, but suppressed the PPO cascade response in O. furnacalis larvae. This study can shed light on lipid metabolism, immune response, and activating the immune recognition response for parasitoid and host co-evolution and provide insight into the biological control of O. furnacalis.

Effect of age dependent cold storage of factitious host Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) for their continuous production and Trichogramma chilonis (Ishii) (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) rearing

Enakshi Ghosh,Chandish R. Ballal 한국응용곤충학회 2017 Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology Vol.20 No.3

In Asia Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) is widely used as a factitious host for the mass rearing of several bio-control agents viz. chrysopids, braconids, trichogrammatids and anthocorids. The age dependent cold storage amenability of C. cephalonica eggs was evaluated. At 5 ± 1 °C with a 24 h of scotophase, 0 to 22 h old eggs of C. cephalonica could be stored for up to 5 days resulting in 83 to 94% hatching. Eggs of C. cephalonica are UV irradiated for mass rearing of T. chilonis. Four, eight, sixteen and twenty four-hour-old C. cephalonica eggs were stored at 5 ± 1 °C for different durations prior to and post-UV irradiation and tested for their amenability to parasitism by T. chilonis. Adult females of T. chilonis could parasitise 67–78% of eggs stored for up to 10 days prior to UV treatment, while 74–78.2% parasitism was recorded in the case of eggs stored for 10 days post-UV. The host eggs of all age groups stored for 20 days (10 days pre-UV and 10 days post-UV) were effectively parasitised providing 83.8–88.4% parasitism. Eight and sixteen hour-old old host eggs stored for 30 days (15 days of pre-UV and 15 days of post-UV) recorded 70–80% parasitism. The host egg storage technique developed through this study would be beneficial for insectaries to stock the host eggs, which can lead to uninterrupted production and supply of ‘Tricho-cards’, especially during seasonal high demand.

Temporal Distribution of Egg Parasitism of Riptortus clavatus (Hemiptera: Alydidae) on Barley and Early Soybean Fields

Bishwo P. Mainali,Un Taek Lim 한국응용곤충학회 2009 한국응용곤충학회 학술대회논문집 Vol.2009 No.05

Ooencyrtus nezarae Ishii (Hemiptera: Encyrtidae) and Gryon japonicum Ashmead (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) are two important egg parasitoids of soybean stink bug Riptortus clavatus, one of the most serious pests in Korea. On the verge of increasing severity of R. clavatus damage in other crops, now it is important to know temporal distribution of R. clavatus and its parasitoids throughout cultivation season of various crops. Seasonal occurrence of R. clavatus and its egg parasitoids is well studied in soybean. However, occurrence of spring populations has not been fully investigated. Therefore we placed pheromone trap with refrigerated eggs in barley and early soybean fields to record occurrence of both R. clavatus and its’ egg parasitism rate in 2008. Number of R. clavatus attracted in the trap was recorded every week, and host eggs collected same time were brought into laboratory for investigation of parasitism. R. clavatus was found to exist in barley on the first day of trap installation, i.e., May 11th. Number of R. clavatus reached highest level after mid July. Only G. japonicum emerged from the eggs collected from barley field whereas O. nezarae was dominant species emerged from the host eggs collected from soybean field. We found that not only R. clavatus infestation but parasitoid occurrence begins in early spring barley field.

Effects of combining releases of non-viable host eggs with insecticide application on Riptortus pedestris population and its egg parasitoids

Mainali, Bishwo P.,Kim, Sang-Won,Lim, Un-Taek 한국응용곤충학회 2012 Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology Vol. No.

Our previous study demonstrated that the release of refrigerated non-viable eggs of Riptortus pedestris (Fabricius) (Hemiptera: Alydidae) enhanced parasitism rates in soybean fields but did not result in the reduction of R. pedestris populations. This study was further conducted using an open-cage exclusion design in a soybean field in order to evaluate the compatibility of combining releases of non-viable host eggs with a single pre-harvest application of insecticide for the control of R. pedestris. Refrigerated eggs of R. pedestris were released twice in treatment plots, and fresh (<1 day old) eggs of R. pedestris were deployed in all experimental arenas, every 6 days, for host resource and measurement of field parasitism. The releases of host eggs did not reduce the number of R. pedestris in any life stage except the adult stage on two sampling dates. However, parasitism by Gryon japonicum (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) was higher in treated plots (9-25%) than in the control plots (1-9%). Statistical significant reduction was not found in the pest population, but parasitism rates significantly increased. Pesticide application did not reduce the bug population but did affect the parasitoids population. Pest management tactics, using both artificially deployed host eggs and insecticide, are discussed.

Effects of combining releases of non-viable host eggs with insecticide application on Riptortus pedestris population and its egg parasitoids

Bishwo P. Mainali,Sangwon Kim,임언택 한국응용곤충학회 2012 Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology Vol.15 No.2

Our previous study demonstrated that the release of refrigerated non-viable eggs of Riptortus pedestris (Fabricius) (Hemiptera: Alydidae) enhanced parasitism rates in soybean fields but did not result in the reduction of R. pedestris populations. This study was further conducted using an open-cage exclusion design in a soybean field in order to evaluate the compatibility of combining releases of non-viable host eggswith a single pre-harvest application of insecticide for the control of R. pedestris. Refrigeratedeggs of R. pedestris were released twice in treatment plots, and fresh (b1 day old) eggs of R. pedestris were deployed in all experimental arenas,every 6 days, for host resource and measurement of field parasitism. The releases of host eggs did not reduce the number of R. pedestris in any life stage except the adult stage on two sampling dates. However, parasitism by Gryon japonicum (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) was higher in treated plots (9–25%) than in the control plots (1–9%). Statistical significant reduction was not found in the pest population, but parasitism rates significantly increased. Pesticide application did not reduce the bug population but did affect the parasitoids population. Pest management tactics, using both artificially deployed host eggs and insecticide, are discussed. © Korean Society of Applied Entomology, Taiwan Entomological Society andMalaysian Plant Protection Society,

Two Homologous Parasitism-specific Proteins Encoded in Cotesia Plutellae Bracovirus (CpBV) and Their Expression Profile in Plutella xylostella

Lee Sun-Young,Je Yeon-Ho,Kim Yong-Gyun 한국응용곤충학회 2005 한국응용곤충학회 학술대회논문집 Vol.2005 No.05