『화엄경』 經目에 보이는 '大'의 의미 考察

김귀주 경주대학교 지역개발연구소 2006 地域開發論叢 Vol.- No.7

chinese Buddhism can be divided in to two levels periodically. One is Translation-Buddhism Period when lots of sutras from india were translated. And the other is Creation-Buddhism Period when chinese-oriented buddhim was proposed. The former was reached before the period of Wej-Jin-Nanbei-chaos, the latter to Sui·Tang period, when various schools established. 『Huayanjing』 was translated by Budhabhadre when Zi-fa-ling acquired sanskrit form of the work from Khotan by the year of 418. Hua-yan theory has been taken over the theoretical system of 『Huayanjing』 as well as establishing its own level. This paper has its aim in scrutinizing how developed the meaning of 'Da' through the period of Translation and Creation Buddhism. sanskrit word of maha which stands for big, great quantity. and maximum in Translation buddhism has translated into chinese word of 'da" which tells the currency and Function of Universe, Just like Fundamentality of heaven from 『Yixici』, Dao from 『Daodejing』, namely as spatial Un-limitedness and temporal Eternality. when it comes to Creation Buddhism period, lots of commentators have enlarged the meaning of 'Da', including Deng-guan. Deng-guan translated the meaning of character in title one by one. First he recorded the origmal tide as "Maha-vaipulya-buddha-ganda-vyuha-sutra" and went into details of seven characters of 『Hua-yan-jing』, base on the ten meangings and the five pairs, thus his commentation is that of Hua-yen style of with a basis of its creeds. The five pairs consists of a pair of the teaching and the meanin g……a pair of the buddhahood and the cause of buddhahood. Ten meaning of the great orgin(ti-da)……the great karma(ye-da) of these, the former 3sa is presumed to be told on 『Dachengqixinlun』 , and the latter 7sa is told to be referred to on seven types of great Attributions on 『shedachengluii』, 『Yugalun』, and 『Zaji』. Thus great orgin(ti-da), great buddhahood(guo-da)……comes under Effect part of Buddha as its different expression of the Enlightenment in Buddha, where great shape(xiang da), great function(yong da)……under Cause part, which belongs to the Effect part since Cause part is nothing but operation of Buddha. and these Cause and Effect part are built up the system of a single concord wi a majority and a majority concord with a single, which tell the endless of fold. Thus when it comes to Creation Buddhism period, the meaning of 'Da' has succeeded its original meaning from outer sutras as well as magnifying to creed on Hua-yan. Thus the concept of 'Da' based on Hua-yan theory is estimated to have the meaning of Effect as Enlightenment in Buddha with Cause as his activity and function which extend to multi-no limitation by means of Mutual Identification and Penetration. So ten types of meaning by Deng-guan is concluded into two main factors of Enlightenment in Buddha as Mental Buddhahood and His Limitless Function as the endless of fold. 중국의 불교는 시대적으로 크게 두 단계로 나눌 수 있다. 하나는 중국불교 초기로써 불교가 인도로부터 전래하고 많은 경전이 역출되는 번역불교시대이고, 다른 하나는 후기로써 중국 本位 불교를 제창하는 창조불교시대이다. 전자는 飜晋南北朝 이전까지, 즉 格義佛敎시대를 가리키고, 후자는 불교종파가 雨後竹筍처럼 성립되던 隋唐시대를 말한다. 『대방광불화엄경』(이하 화엄경이라 함)은 동진 때 支法領이 于閭에서 범본을 얻어와 418년에 불타발타라에 의해 역출되었다. 화엄사상은 중인도와 중앙아시아에서 성립된 『화엄경』의 사상체계를 계승하면서 다른 한편으론 독자적인 사상체계를 수립하고 있다. 이 같은 현상은 杜順 ·智儼을 이어 ·法藏 ·澄觀 ·宗密에까지 이어진다. 이 중 화엄사상체계를 수립한 이는 법장이고, 법장이 수립한 교의체계를 정리한 이는 징관이다. 본 稿는 경목에 보이는 '大'의 의미해석에 착안하여 이것이 번역분교와 창조불교 시대를 거쳐 어떻게 그 의미가 확장되었는지 살피는데 있다. 그러므로 우선 시대적으로 번역불교와 창조불교로 나누고, 번역불교시대는 외전에 입각하여 본래 중국인 들이 가지고 있던 '大'의 의미를 살폈다. 격의불교시대엔 '크다'·'많다'·'수승하다'의 뜻이었던 범어의 maha가 '大'로 한역되면서 『易繫辭』에서 말하는 乾體로써, 또는 『도덕경』에서 말하는 道로써 표현되는 등 우주와 그 우주의 흐름·작용으로 설명되어졌다. 즉 공간적으로 광대무변하고 시간적으로 久遠한, 만물의 생성원리와 작용원리인 道로써 '大'가 인식되어졌다는 것이다. 본격적으로 중국의 본위 불교를 제창하던 창조불교시대에 이르러 많은 화엄주석가들에 의해 '大'의 의미가 확장되었는데 그 대표적인 인물이 징관이다. 징관은 『화엄현담』의 「총석제명」을 통해 그는 경목의 의미를 하나하나 해석하였는데, 먼저 경의 원제목을 "摩訶毘佛略勃陀健驚驃訶徹偦多羅"라고 기록하고, 이어 十事五大를 세워 '대방광불화엄경' 7자에 대해 상세한 의미 해석을 하였다. 따라서 그의 해석은 화엄교리에 근거를 둔 화엄적 해석이라 할 수 있다. 五對란 敎義相對·法蝓相對·人法相對·揀持相對 ·因果相對이고, 十事란 體大·相大·用大·果大·因大·智大·敎大·義大·境大·業大이다. 이 가운데 前 3事는 『대승기신론』의 영향을 받은 것이라 추정되고, 나머지 7事는 『攝大乘論』, 『瑜伽論』, 『雜集』 등의 7종 性德 또는 7종 大性을 인용하였다고 스스로 밝히고 있다. 이를 과분과 인분에 배대하면 體大·果大·智大·義大·業大는 불의 과분에 해당하고, 불의 자내증의 다른 표현으로 발현된다. 相大·用大·因大·敎大·境大는 인분에 해당한다. 이 인분 역시 불 자체의 활동에 지나지 않는 것이므로 자내증에 融入시킬 수 있다. 그리고 이 과분과 인분을 다시 '義大' '敎大' '說大'에 배대하면 '義大'는 보현이 증득한 뜻으로 과분이요, '敎大'는 普賢證義에 대대하여 인분이 된다. 설할 수 없는 것인 과분에 대해 설할 수 있는 1分은 다시 인분이 된다. 이와 같은 인분과 과분은 일즉다·다즉일의 구조를 형성하고 있어 중중무진의 표현으로써 설명되어진다. 그러므로 본위불교를 제창하던 창조불교시대에 이르러 '大'의 의미해석은 번역불교시대 외전의 의한 근본 해석을 계승하는 동시에 화엄교학적 의미에로 확장 융섭시켰음을 알 수 있다. 정리하면 화엄교학에 있어서의 '大'는 불의 자내증을 果로 하고, 그의 활동과 작용을 因으로 하여 서로 상즉 상입하므로써 중중무진으로 파급되어 졌다. 따라서 징관이 나열한 '大'의 열 가지 의미해석도 궁구에는 '자내증'과 '중중무진' 두 항목의 다른 표현들일 뿐임을 알 수 있다.

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This study investigates the effect of directors and officers’ (D&O) insurance on bank risk-taking. Using data from Taiwan banks, we find that: (i) the level of D&O insurance coverage is positively associated with risk-taking; and (ii) this positive relationship is less pronounced for banks whose insurers are highly credit-rated or specialists in the D&O insurance market. Overall, considering the severe consequences of greater bank risk-taking, our findings highlight the need for regulators to monitor the use of D&O insurance policies by banks.

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This article compares the risk policies of GMO and issues on genetic medicine in Taiwan and the Republic of Korea as the thesis of developmental state. Through an analysis of strategic investment, R&D construction and incentives for biotech and biomedicine, we discuss the fact that the role of developmental states has never faded in the fields of economics and technology. On the contrary, both the developmental states and their societies have simultaneously encountered transformative challenges of governance capacity and social trust since the beginning of 2000. In the case of GMO in Taiwan in early 2000, technocrats ignored and concealed technological risks involving serious scientific, ethical and social disputes, even delaying risk governance. And society weakened its scrutinizing capacity. This structural phenomenon leads to a risk culture of delays and cover-ups. In contrast, South Korea prompted the state to be proactive in risk regulation with its active social movements and media reports. Thus, the public was aware of GMO risks. Unlike the relative silence surrounding the 2005 stem cell scandal of Dr. Huang Woo-suk in South Korea, social movement groups in Taiwan paid strong attention to the risks associated with the Taiwan Biobank and criticized the government’s policy on technology over genetic medicine disputes. A comparison between these two cases makes us see that both the government and civil society have been undergoing transformation in newly industrializing countries. Proponents of bringing the state back in” seek to reinstate the government’s ability for governance and problem-solving in areas such as social injustice caused by globalization. It shows that if the state is still limited by a narrow positivistic regulatory science that prioritizes economic and industrial development, the state’s role becomes contradictory in the sense of cosmopolitan risk governance.

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In this paper, the analysis and design of a motion simulator (based on the approach taken by interactive virtual reality (VR) entertainment systems) is conducted. The main components of the system include a bilateral control interface, simulation and a motion simulator control scheme. The space entertainment system uses a virtual environment that enables operators to feel the actual feedback sensing and distorted motion from the virtual environment, just as they would in the real environment. The space entertainment system integrates the dynamics of the motion simulator and the virtual environment and the operator maneuvers a steering wheel to interact with the system. The multiple bilateral control schemes employ a dynamical controller, which is designed by considering the velocity and acceleration that the operator imposes on the joystick, the environmental changes imposed on the motion simulator. In addition, we develop a calculated method to evaluate the Ratio of the simulation results. It is shown that the proposed control scheme can improve the performance of the visual entertainment system. Experiments are conducted on the virtual reality entertainment system to validate the theoretical developments.

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Kuei Tien Chou,Yun Hsiang Lin,Jui Ning Chang 서울대학교 사회발전연구소 2022 Journal of Asian Sociology Vol.51 No.3

This paper points out that while genetically modified organisms (GMOs), bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), and the Fukushima nuclear disaster that respectively occurred in the three East Asian countries of Taiwan, South Korea, and Japan, resulted in the emergence of compulsory cosmopolitanism, from the perspective of cross-border and transnational action. Although these countries all have full social movements domestically, a failure to develop connections between their organizations has resulted in these countries not yet seeing the emergence of cosmopolitan risk collectivities and a regional risk community. The authors explain that these countries have a common historical background of authoritarian politics, with all three possessing the structural factors of expert politics, scientific hegemony, and economic developmentalism. Such conditions formulate the hidden ignorance of risk and stagnates transformation. Therefore, not only are we yet to see any transnational connections between the NGOs in East Asia but there is also an emerging “hung risk governance.”