고려 초의 국제관계와 年號紀年에 대한 재검토

韓政洙(Han Jung-soo) 역사학회 2010 역사학보 Vol.0 No.208

In dynastic society, the ways of calendar system reflected the status and the international relations of the independent dynasty. The under-standing of era name and calendar system of certain period is important key how to see that period in the study of history. Especially, the international relations between Goryeo and late Dang-Five Dynasties-Early Song of China was very complicated and we don't have enough relevant sources. Nevertheless, the calendar system using Chinese era name appeared in the epigraph of Goryeo. Therefore, the subject of this study is how to understand it. For this purpose, I interpreted the background of complicated using way of era name and calendar system and found the meaning of them. First of all, I noticed that the orthodox Chinese dynasty continually took the calendar day reflecting era name as standard for the unification of time. Goryeo dynasty also accepted this way of using calendar day and era name of the orthodox Chinese dynasty. Then, I noticed that the complexity of calendar system was originated from accounts of conduct of life of monks. Succeeding Silla, Goreyo estimated calendar day using calendar science and applied the era names of Dang, Five Dynasties, Song and Goryeo her own. Almanac for recording calendar system was made through circulating almanac from China to Goreyo for coinciding time, or Sacheondae, the institute of astronomical observation of Goryeo. It was possible that monks, the most intellectual people in that period estimated for almanac. As we can see above, Goryeo pursued the estimation of calendar day and unification of time for the operation and record of state. Also Goryeo tried to make up her position in the Chinese order by investiture and circulating of almanac by China or accepting Chinese era name voluntarily. However, we know that Goryeo showed the status of king who accepted providence by trying to make her own era name and calendar system.

근대 이행기 동아시아의 기년법(紀年法)

김미화 ( Jin Meihua ) 한국사회사학회 2016 사회와 역사 Vol.0 No.110

특정한 紀元을 기준으로 햇수를 세는 방식을 `紀年(法)`이라고 한다. 오늘날 기년이란 하나의 도구적 장치로만 여겨지지만, 근대 초까지 그것은 정치권력과 이념, 사상, 종교적 믿음과 문화가 뒤얽힌 중요한 상징이었다. 전통적으로 우주질서를 상징하는 `干支`와 왕의 치세를 뜻하는 `年號`를 기년으로 써 온 동아시아는 19세기 말 서구 근대의 도전에 직면해서 시간질서를 새롭게 定位하고자 했다. 그것은 또한 각국이 어떤 근대국가를 설립할 것인가, 무엇을 `민족/국민(nation)` 통합의 구심점으로 삼을 것인가와 직결된 문제였다. 일본은 위로부터의 개혁을 거치면서 `一世一元`의 천황 연호와 함께 `萬世一系`의 천황제의 정통성을 부각시키는 `皇紀`를 도입했다. 중국의 변법 과정에서는 공자나 黃帝를 국민통합의 상징이자 새 기원으로 삼자는 주장도 제기되었으나, 결국청을 무너뜨리고 수립된 중화민국은 혁명과 신생 민주공화국을 기념하는 `民國`기년을 채택했다. 중국과의 사대관계를 청산하고 자주독립을 실현해야 했던 조선은 개항 이후 중국 황제의 연호를 폐지하고 조선왕조 `개국`기년을 채택한 데 이어, 대한제국 선포를 전후해서 `建陽`, `光武`, `隆熙` 등의 독자 연호를 사용했다. 조선이 일본의 식민지가 된 뒤로는, 역사와 전통에서 민족통합의 구심점을 찾으려는 세력은 `檀紀`와 `공자`기년 등을 주창했고, 대한민국임시정부는 `民國`기년을 제정했다. 이렇게, 동아시아 전근대의 기년법이 대개 왕정과 결부된 것이라면, 근대 이행기에 시도된 다양한 기년법들은 `민족`의 유구한 역사나 문화, 아니면 혁명과 신생 근대국가의 수립을 상징했던 것이다. 해방 후 대한민국은 `단기`를 공식기년으로 채택했다가 1962년 `서기`로 바꾸었다. 그러나 그때의 서기는 이미 본래의 종교적·문화적 배경에서 벗어난 도구적기호에 불과했다. 국민국가 건설의 뜨거운 시기가 지난 뒤에 남은 것은, 추상화된 세계적 표준이다. The calendar era system (紀年法) brings with it years from a particular epoch (紀元). Today, this system and the epoch may be considered as an instrumental. But for a long time, all major civilizations have their own era systems and epochs, and the epochs have played pivotal symbol roles in the form of political power, ideology, religious beliefs and cultures. Traditionally, in East Asia, methods adopted for counting years were set `Chinese sexagenary cycle (干支)`, which symbolizes the cosmic order, and the `imperial era name (年號)` corresponding with the reign of the incumbent emperor. But faced with the challenges of the Western modernity in the late 19th century, East Asian countries had to establish a new calendar era system. That task was closely related to the projects of nation-building or modern state-building. Japan has carried out reforms based on the above, and introduced `Mikado`s era name (元號)` and `Kouki (皇紀)` to highlight the legitimacy of the Mikado system and the permanent succession of Mikado. On the other hand, various political forces that tried to reform China into a nation-state, proposed alternative era systems, with Confucius (孔子) or Yellow Emperor (黃帝) as an new epochal symbol and the symbol of the national unity. At last, however, the Republic of China (中華民國) replaced the Qing Dynasty system in favor of the `Minguo (民國)` as an era name to commemorate the revolution and the new republic. After the `port opening`, to escape from subordination to China and achieve actual independence, Joseon repealed the imperial era name of China and established `Gaeguk (開國)`, commemorating the foundation of the Joseon Dynasty. And then King Gojong proclaimed himself an emperor, and established Joseon`s own imperial era name. As you can see here, the calendar eras usually associated with the monarchy in pre-modern East Asia, the calendar eras of which introduced in transition period toward modernity symbolized the long histories and cultures of the nations, or revolution and the establishment of a new modern state. After the liberation, Republic of Korea adopted `Dangi (檀紀)` as an official calendar era, but replaced it with `anno domini` in 1962. However, at that time, anno domini was only accepted as an instrumental sign that is already disembedded from its original religious and cultural context. After the heated effort to form a nation-state building, what remained was an abstract world standard.

국민국가의 시간과 ‘세계시간’ - 한국의 사례를 중심으로 -

윤해동 한국민족운동사학회 2018 한국민족운동사연구 Vol.0 No.97

In premodern East Asia centered around the Chinese world order, the reign title-sexagenary calendar system had been in place for a long time, but the disintegration of the Chinese world order after the late 19th century led to big changes. In Japan, the reign title-sexagenary and imperial calendar systems took root side by side. In China, perennial calendar systems based on the Confucian or imperial era were initiated, but the Minguo calendar was eventually adopted after the Xinhai Revolution. The situation in colonial Korea was more complicated. Even though the reign-title system was introduced, as many as eight different calendar systems were being used. It was therefore inevitable that the Korean Provisional Government put forth the Minguo calendar as an alternative. Since the annals of China were considered to be the annals of the world, the Chinese calendar system was adopted throughout East Asia. After the Yuan Dynasty, the “one calendar one dynasty” system was established. Meanwhile, colonial Korea was trying hard to build up its national power based on the Chinese calendar. When the Gregorian calendar was brought into East Asia, Japan adopted it relatively early in 1873. In 1896, colonial Korea also declared its acceptance of the Gregorian calendar, but this acceptance was far from complete. Between 1896 and 1908, the calendar system in colonial Korea was binary, with both Chongzhen and Gregorian calendars in use, manifesting the “confusion of times” during this period. Colonialism did not come to Korea out of the blue. Various levels of confusion of times existed prior to colonial Korea. The calendars used among the Korean nationals during colonialism functioned as a medium for spreading the national system of imperial Japan. The Republic of Korea Almanac published by the Korean Provisional Government in 1920 was also an alternative form of calendar. When time becomes standardized and abstract, it is easy for the state and capital to take control of it. Traditional and individual times do not readily dissolve into the time designed by the state and capital. Nevertheless, the state and capital have done a good job of utilizing a system in which abstract time dominates humans. 중화질서를 중심으로 한 전근대의 동아시아에서는 연호-간지 기년법이 오랫동안 정착해 있었으나, 중화질서의 해체에 따라 19세기 말 이후 이 역시 커다란 변화를 맞이하게 되었다. 일본은 연호-간지 기년법과 황국 기원 기년법을 병용하는 체제가 정착되었다. 중국은 공자 기원과 황제 기원 등의 통년기년법 사용이 새로 시도되었으나, 신해혁명 이후 결국 민국 기원 기년법이 정착하였다. 조선의 상황은 더욱 복잡하였는데, 연호가 제정되었으나 그것만을 오로지하지 못하고 무려 8개의 기년을 사용하는 혼란이 연출되기도 하였다. 식민지기 대한민국 임시정부가 대안적인 기년법으로 민국기원을 내세웠던 것은 필연의 과정이었다. 역법 역시 중국의 역서가 ‘천하의 역’으로 동아시아지역에서 통용되었다. 원대 이후 ‘1왕조 1력’ 체제가 정착하였는데, 조선에서는 중국의 역을 토대로 새로운 자국력을 만들려는 노력을 거듭하고 있었다. 동아시아에 그레고리력이 전파되자 일본은 1873년 비교적 이른 시간에 이를 전면적으로 수용하였다. 조선 역시 1896년부터 태양력 수용을 선포하였으나, 그것은 부분적인 것에 지나지 않았다. 1896년부터 1908년까지 조선의 달력은 시헌력과 그레고리력으로 이원화된 시기로, 이는 이 시기의 ‘시간의 혼란’을 드러내는 표상이었다. 조선에 식민지는 그냥 오지 않았다. 다양한 수준의 ‘시간의 혼란’이 식민지에 선행하고 있었다. 식민지기 조선에서 사용된 조선민력은 제국 일본의 ‘국체를 전파하는 매체’로 기능하였다. 1920년 이후 대한민국임시정부가 만든 대한민국역서 역시 대안적 달력이었다. 표준화되고 추상화된 근대적인 시간은 국가와 자본의 시간지배를 용이하게 만든다. 전통적이고 개별적인 시간이 곧바로 국가와 자본의 시간 속으로 용해되어 버리는 것은 아니다. 하지만 국가와 자본은 추상화된 시간이 인간을 지배하고 있는 시스템을 뛰어나게 활용해왔다.

10~12세기 초 국제 질서와 고려의 年號紀年

한정수 한국중세사학회 2017 한국중세사연구 Vol.0 No.49

This study addressed the use of chronological era names of the Goryeo Dynasty in the Eastern Asian international order of the period between the 10th and the 12th century. In a broad sense, it addressed the enactment of independent era names by the Goryeo Dynasty, the use of era names of Chinese Five Dynasties after the establishment of relations between the Goryeo Dynasty and Five Dynasties, the enactment of the era names of Pihui and Junpung to the era name ‘Jianlong(建隆)’ of the Song Dynasty, the choice and suspension of era names related to the international order between the Kitan and the Song Dynasty and so on. In addition, it examined the understanding of era names in the Goryeo Dynasty, and related rituals performed at the time of their acception and use. And finally, it presented the following conclusion: The Goryeo Dynasty abandoned the attempt to establish its own era name at the master-respecting or king-respecting level corresponding with the theory of grand unification prevalent in its early period but accepted the order logic of ‘the small country being submissive to the stronger country’ corresponding with the Chou-respecting order and trend while reflecting the multilateral international order. It was aware of the symbolism of submission to the stronger inherent in the use of the era name and fully reflected its actual benefits and cause in the process of its use. And it maintained its own independent crown prince system as it was found to make the almanac and disseminate it to the Cheoli(鐵利) Kingdom. Accordingly, the perfect almanac of the Goryeo Dynasty does not remain at present. But it is thought to have expressed its independence by inserting the reigning year of the Goryeo-dynasty king or the sexagenary-cycle year in it though the Goryeo Dynasty might follow the country name and era name of the Song Dynasty and the Liao Dynasty in accordance with the international order of that times.

4~5세기 고구려 왕릉급 고분 제사와 太歲 기년법 -우산하 3319호분을 중심으로-

이장웅 한국고대사탐구학회 2021 한국고대사탐구 Vol.39 No.-

In relation to the ancestral rites held in Goguryeo's royal-class tomb in the 4th and 5th centuries, this paper examined both the forms of Stone- mound Tombs and Stone Chamber Tombs with a Mound(corridor-style stone chamber tombs)' Deokheung-ri mural tomb. In addition, it was noted that the Calendar Era System "Taisui(太歲)" appeared in the records related to these tombs. The Jian(集安)'s Usanha(禹山下) Tomb No. 3319 has a traditional Goguryeo style' Stone-mound Tombs on the outside, but its internal structure is shaped like a Chinese brick tomb. In this paper, it was considered that this ancient tomb did not simply employ Chinese style. In other words, as China's influence was harmonized to some extent in the traditional ancient tombs of Goguryeo's Stone-mound Tombs, it was found that it showed the appearance of a transitional ancient tomb connected to a mural tomb in Stone Chamber Tombs with a Mound(corridor-style stone chamber tombs). In addition, he paid more attention to the terraced Stone-mound Tombs style of Goguryeo tradition, the notation of cloud-pattern roof-end tile's the Calendar Era System "Taisui(太歲)" with a different tradition from China, and the petroglyphs of characters wearing yut plates and hats on both sides of the tomb. It is common to see that the ritual ceremony at ancient tombs held during the time of the construction of Stone-mound Tombs in Goguryeo was not held after the Pyongyang Cheondo, as the grave was changed to Stone-Chamber Tombs with a Mound(corridor-style stone chamber tombs) and instead, it was changed to the Royal Ancestral Shrine System(宗廟制). However, I found that Goguryeo's graves have changed from Stone-mound Tombs to Stone-Chamber Tombs with a Mound(corridor-style stone chamber tombs), but the rituals and ideas of the ancient tombs have not changed.