황열병의 통제담론과 권력관계

김서형(KIM Seohyung) 대한의사학회 2014 醫史學 Vol.23 No.3

1793 Yellow fever in Philadelphia was the most severe epidemics in the late 18th century in the United States. More than 10% of the population in the city died and many people fled to other cities. The cause of yellow fever in the United States had close relationship with slaves and sugar in Philadelphia. Sugarcane plantation had needed many labors to produce sugar and lots of Africans had to move to America as slaves. In this process, Aedes aegypti, the vector of yellow fever had migrated to America and the circumstances of ships or cities provided appropriate conditions for its breeding. In this period, the cause of yellow fever could not be established exactly, so suggestions of doctors became entangled in political and intellectual discourses in American society. There was a critical conflict between Jeffersonian Republicanism and Federalism about the origin and treatment of yellow fever. Benjamin Rush, a Jeffersonian Republican, suggested urban sanitation reform and bloodletting. He believed the infectious disease happened because of unsanitary city condition, so he thought the United States could be a healthy nation by improvement of the public health and sanitation. He would like to cope with national crisis and develop American society on the basis of republicanism. While Rush suggested the improvement of public health and sanitation, the city government of Philadelphia suggested isolation of yellow fever patients and quarantine. City government isolated the patients from healthy people and it reconstructed space of hospital. Also, it built orphanages to take care of children who lost their parents during the epidemic and implemented power to control people put in the state of exception. Of course, city government tried to protect the city and nation by quarantine of every ship to Philadelphia. Control policies of yellow fever in 1793 showed different conflicts and interactions. Through the yellow fever, Jeffersonian Republicanism and Federalism had conflicted in politically, but they had interactions for control of the infectious disease. And with these kinds of infectious diseases policies, we can see interactions in local, national and global level.

19세기의 유행성 콜레라와 미국사회 개혁운동

김서형(KIM Seohyung) 대한의사학회 2015 醫史學 Vol.24 No.3

The 19th century was the age of great reform in American history. After constructing of the canal and railroads, the industrialization began and American society changed so rapidly. In this period, there were so many social crisis and American people tried to solve these problems within the several reform movements. These reform movements were the driving forces to control cholera during the 19th century. Cholera was the endemic disease in Bengal, India, but after the 19th century it had spread globally by the development of trade networks. The 1832 cholera in the United States was the first epidemic cholera in American history. The mortality of cholera was so high, but it was very hard to find out the cause of this fatal infectious disease. So, different social discourses happened to control epidemic cholera in the 19th century, these can be understood within the similar context of American reform movements during this period. Board of Health in New York States made a new public health act to control cholera in 1832, it was ineffective. Some people insisted that the cause of this infectious disease was the corruption of the United States. They emphasized unjust and immoral system in American society. Moral reform expanded to Nativism, because lots of Irish immigrants were the victims of cholera. So, epidemic cholera was the opportunity to spread the desire for moral reform. To control cholera in 1849, the sanitary reform in Britain had affected. The fact that it was so important to improve and maintain the water quality for the control and prevention of disease spread, the sanitary reform happened. There were two different sphere of the sanitary reform. The former was the private reform to improve sewer or privy, the latter was the public reform to build sewage facilities. The 1849 cholera had an important meaning, because the social discourse, which had emphasized the sanitation of people or home expanded to the public sphere. When cholera broke out in 1866 again, the new discourse to raise the necessity of professional medical personnel. The establishment of Metropolitan Board of Heath forced to appoint trained medical people and the treatment of disease at the home moved to medical doctors who had professional knowledge and authority. In this meaning, the medical reform provided the opportunity the appearance of professionalized medical doctors. These epidemic cholera during the 19th century, there were different reform movements in American society. The infectious disease affected development and changes of American society, the most important thing was that the problem of sanitation and public health was not only the private one, but the serious problems in society and nation. So, epidemic cholera during the 19th century provided more balanced perspective to analyze the American society in this period.

18-19세기 아일랜드의 재난 - 기근과 전염병, 그리고 이민-

김서형 ( Seohyung Kim ) 한국서양사학회 2016 西洋史論 Vol.0 No.130

18세기부터 19세기까지 인류 역사 속에서 발생했던 재난 가운데 가장 치명적이었던 것은 바로 아일랜드 기근이었다. 기근의 궁극적인 원인은 감자 흉작이었는데, 1740년 기근 당시 아일랜드 전체 인구의 약 20%가 기아와 전염병으로 사망했다. 그리고 1845년에 다시 기근이 발생했을 때 아일랜드의 상황은 더욱 심각했다. 이와 같은 점을 고려한다면, 한 세기에 걸쳐 발생했던 감자 흉작은 그야말로 재난이 아닐 수 없다. 1740년 기근은 캄차카 반도에서 폭발한 화산으로 인한 기후변화 때문에 발생했는데, 오랫동안 대서리가 내리고 혹한이 시작되면서 아일랜드의 감자 수확량은 급감할 수밖에 없었다. 굶주림에 직면한 빈민들은 폭동이라는 극단적인 수단을 선택하기도 했는데, 이 기간 동안 영국 정부가 취했던 구제책은 별다른 것이 없었다. 이와 같은 상황은 1845년 대기근 당시에서 마찬가지였다. 19세기 초에 탐보라 화산 폭발로 전 지구적인 기후변화가 발생했고, 감자 역병균이 확산되면서 아일랜드의 상황은 더욱 비참해졌다. 이와 같은 사회적 위기를 극복하기 위해 영국 정부는 대체 식량으로 아메리카산 옥수수를 수입하거나 구빈원을 운영하기도 했지만, 별다른 성과를 얻지 못했다. 감자 흉작으로 굶주림에 직면한 빈민들에게 영향을 미친 또 다른 것은 바로 전염병이었다. 티푸스나 콜레라, 이질 등의 전염병이 급속하게 확산되면서 사망률이 증가했고, 결국 생존을 위해 아일랜드를 떠나 이주하는 사람들이 늘어나기 시작했다. 이들은 주로 대서양을 건너 아메리카로 이주했는데, 아메리카의 현실은 그리 순탄하지 않았다. 토착주의자들에게 이들은 기존 이민들과 다른 언어를 사용하고, 종교를 믿는 이방인이었으며, 이들에 대한 사회적 차별과 배제는 더욱 심화되었다. 이후 미국사회에서는 치명적인 전염병이 발생할 때마다 아일랜드 이민들의 거주지가 바로 전염병의 온상이라고 신랄하게 비판하는 사회적 담론이 형성되었다. 이러한 점에서 18세기와 19세기에 걸쳐 발생했던 감자 흉작은 자연현상과 인간의 상호관련성뿐만 아니라 국가들, 그리고 더 나아가 전 지구적으로 영향을 미쳤던 역사적 재난이라 할 수 있다. The Irish famine was the most severe disaster in human history and occurred from the 18th century to the 19th century. It was caused by a potato famine. Almost 20% of the Irish population died from starvation and infectious diseases in 1740. When the Great famine happened in 1845, the situation in Ireland was more serious. More than 30% of Irish people, most of them tenant farmers and workers, depended on potatoes for survival. Consequently, the potato famine during the 18-19th century in Ireland was the most fatal disaster in recent history. The famine in 1740 was caused by climate change after a volcanic eruption in the Kamcthaka Peninsula. Snow had fallen for a long time and the temperature was bitterly cold. As a result, cultivated potatoes in Ireland failed and severe famine followed. The poor, who were faced with hunger, responded with extreme methods, such as by rioting. However, there were few trials by the British government to resolve the social crisis, which included starvation and infectious diseases. The situation was almost the same in 1845, when the Great famine happened. The eruption of the Tambora volcano in the beginning of the 19th century caused global climate change and phytophthora infestans had a fatal effect on the cultivation of potatoes in Ireland. Ireland, which depended on potatoes more than any other nation, was faced with disaster. To solve these social problems, the British government imported maize from America or run poorhouses, but these went down like a lead balloon. The infectious diseases also disproportionately affected the poor. Typhus, cholera and dysentery broke out frequently in the poorhouses, where lots of people had to live together. Many people left Ireland and migrated to America across the Atlantic ocean, but the reality in America was not friendly to Irish immigrants. They were strangers, who spoke a different language and believed in a different religion. The new immigrants often became the scapegoats of social discourse when crises such as fatal infectious diseases broke out in the United States. In this sense, the potato famine in Ireland during the 18-19 century was a historical event with interconnections between natural phenomena and human beings, as well as between nations and the global society.

루퍼트 블루의 공중보건 정책과 공중보건국

김서형 ( Seohyung Kim ) 한국미국사학회 2013 미국사연구 Vol.37 No.-

20세기 이후 근대과학과 의학이 급속하게 발전하면서 위생과 공중보건에 대한 미국사회의 관심은 더욱 급증했다. 공중보건을 유지하고 향상시키는 데 가장 중요한 것은 바로 전염병 통제였는데, 이는 오랫동안 질서유지 권력의 일환으로서 주정부가 배타적으로 행사해왔다. 무엇보다도 주정부는 격리 조치를 비롯한 전염병 통제 정책을 통해 공동체의 질서를 유지하는 데 필요한 권한을 행사해왔다. 이러한 과정 속에서 연방정부의 전염병 통제 권한은 해군과 해사에만 국한되어 오랫동안 주정부나 지역정부의 정책에 협조하는 것에 국한되었다. 그러나 인구 전체를 유지하고 효과적으로 통제하기 위해 연방정부 역시 이민 검역 등을 통해 전염병 통제에 많은 관심을 가지고 적극적으로 개입하고자 했다. 이와 같이 전염병 통제를 둘러싼 주정부와 연방정부의 갈등은 사실 식민지 초기부터 존재했는데, 이와 같은 갈등 속에서 연방정부의 전염병 통제 권력이 확대되는 현상은 바로 루퍼트 블루의 공중보건 정책을 통해 보다 구체적으로 드러났다. 루퍼트 블루는 1912년부터 1920년까지 미국 공중보건국의 의무감을 역임했는데, 그는 전염병 예방과 통제를 통해 미국사회의 위생과 공중보건을 향상시키는 것은 전적으로 연방정부의 책임이라고 믿었다. 연방정부의 보건권력 확대를 위해 블루는 전염병 조사 및 지식 공유와 확산 및 성병 통제와 1918년 인플루엔자 통제 정책 등을 적극적으로 시행했다. 그리고 이와 같은 블루의 정책들을 통해 공중보건국은 다른 어느 시기보다 강력한 조직으로 부상했다. 사실, 지금까지 공중보건국의 역할을 분석하고, 그것이 지니는 역사적 의미를 살펴보고자 했던 연구 성과는 거의 찾아볼 수 없다. 이와 더불어 연방정부의 보건권력의 확대를 지지하고, 이를 위해 다양한 정책들을 시행했던 블루에 대한 연구 역시 전무하다. 이러한 점에서 공중보건 및 전염병 통제의 중요성을 이해하기 위해 보다 넓은 맥락 속에서 주정부와 연방정부의 전염병 통제 권력을 살펴보고, 보다 구체적으로는 블루의 공중보건 정책들을 중심으로 공중보건국의 역할과 이를 통해 미국사회에서 나타났던 주정부와 연방정부의 갈등을 살펴보는 것은 미국사회의 보건 및 복지를 향상시키기 위한 연방정부의 역할과 중요성을 이해하는 데 매우 중요하다. Since the 20th century, interest of American society for sanitation and public health had increased according to development of modern science and medical science. Control of infectious disease was the most important to maintain and develop public health. The control power of disease was one of the police powers and state government exclusively had exercised it. In this process, role of federal government was just confined to support state and local government. However, federal government had tried to intervene actively control of infectious disease to maintain and control the whole population by immigration inspection. This conflict between state and federal government had appeared since the colonial period. And the role and power of federal government increased by public policies of Rupert Blue. He was the Surgeon General of the United States Public Health Service from 1912 to 1920 and he believed that prevention and control of infectious diseases was totally responsible for federal government to develop sanitation and public health of American society. Blue implemented investigation of infectious diseases, sharing and spreading of knowledge about diseases, control policy of venereal disease and the 1918 influenza to expand the public health power of federal government. As a result, PHS emerged as a powerful organization by these policies. In fact, it is so hard to find out researches to analyze of role of the PHS and to investigate its historical meaning. Also, there is little study about Rupert Blue who supported expansion of federal government’s public health power and implemented several policies. In this point, this study is necessary to examine the power of state and federal government in larger context and to understand several policies of Rupert Blue. Also, it is important to understand conflicts between state government and federal government and role of the PHS and federal government to improve public health in American society.

한국어 수업에서의 교사 칭찬 발화 양상 연구

김서형 ( Kim Seohyung ) 연세대학교 언어연구교육원 한국어학당 2020 외국어로서의 한국어교육 Vol.59 No.-

This paper examined the aspect of offering praise that appears in the actual Korean language class. This study reviewed the discussions of prior research to re-organize the concept of praise and examine the patterns of offering praise that appears in the actual Korean language class. Praise was defined as an act of positive feedback of teaching in the sight of a comprehensive perspective. The analysis items derived through prior research were frequency of praise provision, object of praise, target and method of praise, and language expression of praise in consideration of the characteristics of Korean language education and research materials. A total of 750 minutes of actual midand high-level Korean classes were recorded and analyzed according to the survey items. As a result, teacher praises were given 308 times in 15 Korean classes. This shows that Korean language teachers give at least 14 to 20 times of praise in one class. The frequency of praise by teacher, by class area, and by learner language level all showed meaningful differences. The frequency of appearance of praise in the order of ‘grammar>verbal>speaking classes’ and in the order of ‘individual>class>group’. The frequency of appearance related to the praise was provided in the order of ‘learning result>learning process> personality/characteristic>(potential) abilities, other>looks, and (life) attitudes’. The language of praise were offered in the order of 그렇다> 맞다>잘하다>구체적 내용> 좋다>오케이>괜찮다.’ The positive factor in the analysis results was that teacher offered praise to learners individually. But there was no linguistic diversity. Teacher praise offered as an same linguistic form to all learners. These results bring that it is necessary to give differential praise according to the educational context and to investigate effective praise skill. (Kyonggi University)

20세기 초 혁신주의 개혁가들과 연방정부의 성병 통제 정책

김서형(Seohyung Kim) 경북대학교 인문학술원 2021 동서인문 Vol.- No.15

It was Progressivism that culminated in American society in the early 20<SUP>th</SUP> century. In such a social atmosphere, the most important task of all was to effectively control venereal diseases, such as syphilis or gonorrhea, prevalent in American society. At that time, the venereal disease was a pandemic that occurred frequently not only in the military, but also in civil society. Many thought that eradication of prostitution and control of venereal diseases could reform politically and morally corrupt American society and win World War I. The progressive reformers who sought to reform American society during this period can be divided to three categories. The first is medical doctor, who led the treatment and prevention of venereal diseases based on scientific and medical experiment. American Social Hygiene Association(ASHA) emphasized prevention through public education in order to supplement the limitations of treatments for venereal diseases, including Salvarsan at that time. They believed that these sanitary reform could lead to a better American society by protecting the purity of American society and improving personal hygiene and public health. The second is women reformers. A problem of particular interest to women reformers was the sexual enslavement of women. The Women’s Christian Temperance Union(WCTU) promoted the prohibition and social welfare and played an important in the enactment of the Mann Act, which prohibits to engage in interstate or foreign commerce transport of any woman or girl for the purpose of prostitution or immoral purpose. Many women reformers attempted to eradicate prostitution and control venereal diseases through the enactment of the law and pursue fundamental equality between men and women by abolishing double-standard, prevalent in American society by moral reform. The last is the federal government. The federal government, which actively intervened in venereal disease control policies by expanding police power, given to the state government, enacted the “Chamberlain-Khan Act” in 1918 as part of the American Plan. The United States Public Health Service(USPHS), which was granted a special budget on the basis of this act, exercised greater public health power than any other agency through budget distribution and execution, and the federal government worked with state medical doctors to cooperate with venereal diseases. The ultimate goal was to improve public health in American society based on legal reform and to win World War I. Many historians have studied Progressivism that dominated American society in the early 20<SUP>th</SUP> century according to separate and independent trends. However, venereal diseases control policies of progressive reformers who pursued sanitary reform, moral reform, and legal reform to control venereal diseases that prevailed in American society are interconnected. The policies to control venereal diseases during this period show that various progressivism trends such as political reform, sanitary reform, moral reform and war were integrated and resulted in a single trend of public health. Therefore, the interaction between sanitary reform, moral reform and legal reform that tried to control venereal diseases in the American society in the early 20<SUP>th</SUP> century on the foundation to Progressivism from a perspective of infectious disease, such as venereal disease and to analyze Progressivism era from a new historical perspective.

한국어의 의문사와 부정사의 긍·부정 극성 표현

김서형(Kim, Seohyung) 국제언어문학회 2018 國際言語文學 Vol.- No.39

한국어에서 의문사는 내용 의문문을 이루는 미지칭 기능 외에 미정칭과 부정칭으로도 쓰인다. 본고에서는 의문사에서 미지칭 기능이 기본이 되어 미정칭과 부정칭 기능으로 파생되는 근거를 여러 면에서 찾았다. 의문사는 미정칭으로서의 보조사 ‘나, 도, 든’ 그리고 ‘조차, 마저, 까지’ 등과 결합하여 부정칭 기능을 가져 부정뿐만 아니라 긍정의 ‘극성’을 나타낼 수 있음을, 의문사 ‘누구’와 부정사 ‘아무’를 중심으로 살펴보았다. 이러한 극성 실현은 일반적인 명사가 아닌 부정칭 기능의 의문사와 부정사와의 결합에서만 가능하였다. 의문사는 역시 미정칭으로서 이들 보조사 외에 ‘-으나, -어도, -든, -든지, -은들, -더라도, -을지라도, -되’ 등의 활용 어미를 가진 서술어와 공기하면서도 부정칭이 되어 극성을 나타낼 수 있다. 이들 어미는 부정칭 의문사나 부정사가 아닌 일반적인 명사와 공기할 때에는 양보성 의미를 나타낼 뿐이다. 이처럼 극성 실현에 참여하는 보조사와 활용 어미는 그 형태가 상통한다. In Korean, interrogatives is also used as undetermines and indefinitives in addition to the function of unknowns that represents the question and constitutes the content question sentence. In this paper, I have found in many ways the grounds of unknowns in interrogatives, which are derived as undetermines and indefinitives. It can be said that interrogatives can be expressed meaning positive and negative polarities by having the function of indefinitives in combination with auxiliary particles ‘na, do, deun’ and ‘jocha, majeo, kkaji’ as undetermines. I looked at this trough interrogatives ‘nugu’ and indefinite words ‘amu’ among interrogatives. The realization of this polarity is possible only in the conjunction of interrogatives and infinitives in the function of interrogatives, not a general noun. In addition to these auxiliary particles, interrogatives has also the function of indefinitives when doing co-occurence with verbal endings, ‘-euna, -eodo, -deun, -deunji, -eundeul, -deorado, -euljirado, -doe’ , and interrogatives can express polarity as like as the fuction of indefinitives. These verbal endings only express concessions when doing co-occurence with common nouns, not indefinitives or interrogatives. This type of auxiliary participates in the realization of the polarity and the these ending forms are common.

국어과 교재의 상대 높임 화계 설정과, 구어 현실

홍종선 ( Hong Jongseon ),김서형 ( Kim Seohyung ) 국어교육학회 2016 國語敎育學硏究 Vol.51 No.3

국어 생활에서 상대 높임 표현은 지금까지 체계상의 변화를 더욱 많이 겪었으나 그 상대 높임 화계는 20세기 전반기에 국어학에서 세운 체계를 별다른 수정이 없이 지금까지 답습하고 있다. 국어의 높임법 체계와 구성은 국어학 이론을 바탕으로 하면서도 국어 사용자의 인식을 충분히 배려하여야 한다. 더구나 (한)국어 교육을 위한 높임법 체계는 국어의 일반 사용자에게 설명력을 제대로 갖추고 국어 학습자들도 가급적 쉽게 이해할 수 있도록 연구해야 한다. 이 글에서는 지금까지 일반화되어 있는 4등급의 격식체와 2등급의 비격식체라는 2원적 상대 높임의 기본적인 화계는 오늘날 비현실적이므로 1원적인 체계로 하였다. 발화의 격식성은 주로 어조에 의해 결정되며 다양한 발화 태도 개입 요소들도 종결 어미의 형태 차이보다 크게 작용하므로 격식체와 비격식체의 구분이 별 의의를 갖지 못하기 때문이다. 또한 국어학이나 국어 교육학에서의 기존 연구 내용을 재조정하고 언어 현실에서의 사용 빈도를 고려하여 가장 높은 등급부터 ``하십시오체, 하세요체, 해요체, 해체, 해라체``라는 5등급과 그에 해당하는 대표형을 상정하였다. 이에 중·고교 국어과 교육 및 한국어 교육에서는 그 사용이 매우 적고 극히 일부에 국한되어 있는 ``하오체``와 ``하게체``는 제외하되, 다만 심화 학습으로 이를 다룰 수 있음을 제안하였다. Even though Korean relative honorific expressions have gone through a lot in terms of systemic change in real life, the relative honorific speech level has followed the system which set up by Korean linguistics in the early of 20th century as before without any modification. Korean relative honorific system and construction should be based on the theory of Korean linguistics with consideration of Korean Speaker`s realization and awareness. Moreover the research of Korean relative honorific system for Korean education has to seek the explanatory to Korean normal speakers and provide comprehensible contents to Korean language learners of as the first and second language. This paper suggests that the relative honorific speech level is realized in mono system as a basic relative honorific system. This is from the idea that it is not realistic that there is four kinds of classes of formal style and two kinds of classes of informal style in dual system of the relative honorific speech level. The formality of utterance commonly depends on tone and involves the intervention elements of utterance manner. Hence, the dual system of the relative honorific speech level is not meaningful. This paper tries to set up the relative honorific speech level from ``Hashipsio, Haseyo, Heyyo, Hey, and Heyla style`` according the degree of honorification and presents the retrospectives form of them by each. This is through reformulating the former researches and taking the frequency of use in real life. To educate Korean as the first and second language, this paper also suggest that ``Hao-style`` and ``Hagye-style`` are excluded from the basic system but handled in enrichment program.

대학 수학 한국어 학습자의 조사 오류 분석과 교육 방안 : '이/가'와' 을/를' 누락 오류를 중심으로

김서형 한국어학회 2009 한국어학 Vol.42 No.-

This article is to suggest a particle teaching method through error analysis. Finding main error causes, I examined under-grade international Students' writings It could make me get the three error causes; errors from the native language. from training procedure and from over-generalization of target language rule. I suggest that it is presented as a full sentence with particles in material from die elementary step for regular Korean language course and as an extra class of written style depending on text property for under-grade Korean writing course. I applied particles teaching with driven method for writing course of another under-grade international students. As a result, I found that the particle ommission errors is decreased comparing with the group without any direction about particle ommission.