日帝下 基督敎 民族運動의 政治經濟思想 : 安昌浩·李承晩 계열을 중심으로

장규식 연세대학교 대학원 2000 국내박사

본 연구는 韓國 近代民族主義의 사상이론을 계통적으로 해명하는 작업의 일환으로, 그 한 축을 이루고 있었던 基督敎 民族主義를 일제하 기독교 민족운동을 통해 살펴본 것이다. 대한제국 말기 新民會와 皇城基督敎靑年會를 거점으로 대두한 기독교 민족운동은 관서지방의 신흥상공인층과 신지식층, 기호지방의 신지식층과 개혁관료층을 주축으로 하는 基督敎 政治社會勢力化의 한 매듭이었다. 이 시기 기독교 민족운동 세력은 독립협회 이래 漸進的 文明開化論의 연장선상에서 宗敎·敎育·殖産運動을 전개하면서, 기독교를 통해 독립정신을 고취하고, 실력양성의 기반이 되는 근대적 시민의식과 지식을 습득할 것을 주장하였다. 그러나 ‘韓日合倂’과 일제의 무단통치는 근대시민의 육성을 통한 자유문명국가, 실력양성을 통한 근대 자본주의국가의 건설이라는 그들의 당초 구상을 뿌리채 흔들어 놓았다. 그러한 가운데 ‘105人事件’을 거치며 새로운 청년 학생세대들에 의해 武裝鬪爭論이 제기되었다. 더불어 일제 무단통치를 정당화하는 社會進化論的 强權主義에 대한 이론적 극복이 시도되었는데, 그것은 共和主義와 人道主義의 수용으로 나타났다. 이 때 인도주의와 民族自決主義는 기독교세력이 3·1운동에 주도적으로 참여하기에 이르는 사상적 배경이 되었다. 한편 워싱턴軍縮會議를 전기로 민족자결주의가 퇴조하고 부르주아민족운동 내부에 실력양성 노선이 전면화하는 가운데, 기독교 민족운동의 개량주의적 재편이 기독교 선교의 양대 거점인 평양과 서울을 중심으로 진행되었다. 그리고 그러한 과정에서 안창호 계열의 平壤YMCA·修養同友會·基督信友會 등과 이승만 계열의 中央YMCA·興業俱樂部·積極信仰團으로 대표되는 기독교계 개량주의적 민족운동의 진영이 형성되었다. 3·1운동 이후 기독교세력은 平和的인 방법으로, 世界改造의 새로운 기운에 부응하는 正義와 人道의 실현으로서 한국의 독립을 전망하고, 그 방략으로 外交論과 實力養成論을 제기하였다. 한편 1920년대 중반 대두한 사회주의자들의 反宗敎運動에 대응하는 과정에서 기독교세력 내부에 민족문제인식, 사회인식상의 일정한 편차가 나타났다. 그것은 기독교와 사회주의의 사상적 결합과 민중적 기독교를 모색하는 基督敎社會主義, 近代主義에 입각한 社會福音主義로 대별되었다. 신간회의 출범 이후 기독교계의 사회참여 논의가 활발해지는 가운데 예루살렘 국제선교대회를 거치며 맑스주의와 구별되는 기독교적 사회실천의 이론으로 ‘基督主義’가 등장하였다. 1929년 기독신우회의 ‘宣言’을 통해 공식 천명된 기독주의는 대공황기 반종교운동과 엇물리면서 反唯物論 이념투쟁으로 굴절되었는데, 그것은 이후 기독교계 내부에 冷戰意識이 자리잡는 과정을 보여주는 하나의 사례였다. 한편 실력양성론과 더불어 일제하 기독교 민족운동을 특징짓는 또 다른 논리는 宗敎→敎育→實業→政治로 이어지는 漸進主義였다. 기독교세력은 근대 시민의식의 형성을 목표로 하는 종교·문화운동을 모든 운동의 근본운동으로 설정하고, 그에 기초하여 교육·경제적 실력양성과 정치적 방면의 민족적 합동을 이룸으로써 자주독립의 기초를 마련하려 하였다. 그러한 선상에서 그들이 설정한 새로운 독립국가의 모델은 국가를 개인의 단체적 결합으로 파악하고, 國家에 대한 市民社會의 가치우위를 내세우는 自由主義 國家였다. 그런데 일제 침략으로 시민사회의 자율성 확보가 불가능해진 상황에서 그같은 국가론의 기조는 동요할 수밖에 없었다. 일제에 대한 非妥協의 원칙과 시민사회적 이해 사이에서 나타나는 갈등구조가 바로 그것이었다. 이 때 갈등의 소지가 된 문화운동과 정치운동 사이의 긴장관계를 일체의 정치색을 배제한 人格修養이라는 논리로 끊어버린 李光洙의 「民族改造論」은 당시 일제의 민족분열정책으로 동요하던 기독교계 민족부르조아지의 입장을 대변하였다. 이에 대해 신간회운동기 趙炳玉, 朱耀翰의 修養同友會 改造運動과 안창호의 大公主義는 민족해방을 최우선의 과제로 부각시키고, 신자유주의 국가관을 수용하여 사회전체의 공익을 위한 ‘사회적 국가’의 개입을 정당화함으로써 시민사회의 사적 영역에 안주하려는 그같은 경향에 대응하려 한 경우였다. 이와 더불어 대공황기를 거치며 이승만 계열 일각에서는 申興雨와 그가 조직한 적극신앙단을 중심으로 파시즘을 수용하려는 움직임이 나타나기도 하였다. 일제하 기독교 민족운동의 민족경제건설 노선은 평양과 서울을 양대 거점으로 하여 전개된 자본주의 경제운동과 농촌운동을 통해 살펴볼 수 있다. 먼저 曺晩植을 구심점으로 物産奬勵運動·企業設立運動·節制運動 등의 방면에 걸쳐 전개된 관서 기독교계의 자본주의 경제운동은 ‘庶民型’ 中小資本家의 이해를 대변하는 가운데, 국가권력과 구별되는 시민사회의 자율성 논리에 기초하여 생산·유통·소비에 걸친 自作自給과 內資蓄積을 통한 自立的 近代化를 추구하였다. 그리고 기호 기독교계의 實業敎育運動은 근면성 성실성 책임감과 독립자영의 능력을 갖춘 基督敎的 市民層, 自立的 中産層의 양성에 촛점을 맞추었다. 이 과정에서 이승만 계열의 인사들은 外資導入論을 제기하기도 하였다. 한편 기독교계의 농촌운동은 YMCA연합회 농촌부와 장로회총회 농촌부를 양대 축으로 하여 전개되었다. 먼저 신홍우를 비롯한 이승만 계열 인사들에 의해 주도된 YMCA 農村事業은 産業化를 통한 농촌 과잉인구의 도시 흡수, 아일랜드를 모델로 한 유상매상·유상분배의 農地改革, 덴마크를 모델로 한 協同組合의 조직을 농촌재건의 밑그림으로 하는 近代主義的 農村運動이었다. 다음으로 안창호·조만식 계열에 의해 주도된 長老會 農村運動은 농촌의 경제적 파산과 문화적 낙오, 도덕적 타락을 한데 아울러 농촌피폐의 원인으로 파악하고, 교회를 중심으로 모범농촌을 건설함으로써 그같은 문제들을 풀어 나가려 한 福音主義的 農村運動이었다. 이와같이 일제하 기독교 민족운동은 개인의 自我革新 곧 近代 市民意識의 형성을 운동의 출발점으로 삼아, 이를 中産層의 육성과 中小資本 중심의 資本主義 近代化, 협동조합 등을 통한 自立的 小農體制의 확립으로 연결시키고, 나아가 시민사회의 輿論政治 원리에 입각한 민족적 대동단결과 자주독립을 전망하였던 민족개량주의운동이었다. 그러한 면에서 기독교 민족운동의 정치경제사상은 新興 中間階級의 이해를 대변하는, 自由主義 원리에 기초한 市民社會論的 民族主義였다. 그런데 이 시기 기독교세력은 양반 대지주 출신과 소빈농·노동자계급의 중간에서 市民革命論·絶對獨立論이 아닌 漸進的 文明開化論·民族改良主義 노선을 선택하면서 대지주·자본가와 계급적인 연합을 하였다. 그리고 反唯物論的 사상의식과 自由主義的 市民社會論의 이론적 정합성을 기초로 해방후 남한 자본주의국가의 체제이념과 자유민주주의 논리를 확립하는 데 열성적으로 참여하였다. 일제하 기독교 민족운동이 해방후 분단체제의 형성과 관련하여 갖는 역사적 함의는 바로 여기에서 찾아질 수 있다. This thesis explores the christian nationalism on the basis of christian national movement in the period of Japanese colonial rule, through which we can systematically clarify the traditional ideas of modern nationalism of Korea. In the late Daehan Empire period, christian national movement, which was based on the Shinminhoe(New People's Society) and the Hwangseong(Seoul) YMCA, represented the politicalization and socialization of christian power. It prevailed into the independent middle class in Kwanseo(Northwest) area and into the reformist bureaucrats and the new educated class in Kiho(Central) area. In this period, the christian nationalists developed the new movement in religion and education, insisting on learning the modem citizenship & knowledge and on expanding the independent spirit through christianity. However, the forceful occupation and military rule of Japan made their early plans fruitless. Their plan was to establish a civilized nation and a modem capitalistic economic system in Korea. Meanwhile, a group of new younger students introduced the armed independence movement through the 105 In Sageon (Incident of 105 People). At the same time, it was tried to overcome the social-evolutionary authoritarianism theoretically, which resulted in acceptance of republicanism and humanism. The humanism and the principle of self-determination of peoples had become the ideological background of the March 1st Independence Movement. While the principle of self-determination of peoples decayed and the idea of fostering real ability surged, the reorganization of christian national movement according to the policy of gradual improvement developed in the two top christian centers of Seoul and Pyongyang. In the process of this change, the christian nationalist camp along the line of gradual improvement formed, which included the groups following the lines of An Changho and Rhee Seungman respectively. After March lst Movement, christians anticipated the independence of Korea as a realization of justice and humanism and they raised diplomacy and fostering real ability as a strategy. In the middle of 1920s, there were two tendencies among christian nationalists in response to Anti-Religion Movement of socialists. They were christian socialism, which was based on the combination of christianity and socialism, and social gospel, which was based on the modernism. After the appearance of Shinganhoe(National United Front), a new christianism was introduced as a christian practical morality, which was raised through Jerusalem Meeting of the International Missionary Council, distinguishing itself from marxism. The christianism interacted with Anti-Religion Movement and developed into an ideological fighting against materialism. This event had become a case of settling down of the cold war mentality in christian society. Another logic of christian national movement was characterized by the gradual progressivism, which panned to take the steps of religion, education, industry, and politics successively. All the christian groups set the movement of religion and culture as a base of all kinds of social movements. With this idea, they were willing to establish the base of the self-independence of Korea by fostering real ability in education and economy and by making a national union in political aspects. In this situation, their new model of independent state was based on liberalism, which regarded a nation as a union of people and gave priority to the civil society over nation. However, under the situation of Japanese colonial rule, it was impossible to protect the self-autonomy of civil society and as a result liberalism could not take root. It was the conflict structure between the principle of uncompromization with Japanese imperialism and the interest of civil society. In this social situation, Lee Kwangsu introduced his idea of remodelling a national movement, which represented for the position of christian national bourgeoisie. His opinion is that the tension between cultural movement and political movement can be solved by the cultivation of personality without political color. Against this ideological tendency, Suyang Dongwoohoe(Mental Training Society) Reforming Movement under the leadership of Chu Yohan and Cho Byongok and Daegongism of An Changho were raised, which were based on the new liberalism. They hilighted national liberation as a primary task, and justified the government intervention in social affairs for the public interest. Meanwhile, along the line of Rhee Seungman, the movement of accepting fascism appeared centering around the Jeokkeuk Shinangdan(Positive Faith Team) under the leadership of Cynn Heungwoo. We can examine the ideas of national economic construction through capitalistic economic movement and rural movement, which centered in two central cities, Seoul and Pyongyang. Economic movement of Kwanseo(Northwest) area christians spoke for the small and medium capitalists, was based on the self-regulation of civil society distinguished from the government power, and pursued the independent industrialization through the self-sufficiency and the national capital accumulation. In addition, the vocational training movement of Kiho(Central) area christians focused on fostering christian civil class and independent middle class, who was qualified on diligence, sincerity, and spirit of independence. In this process, people following the line of Rhee Seungman suggested the introduction of foreign capital. The rural movement of christians expanded centering around the YMCA and the Presbyterian Church. First, the rural work of YMCA, which was led by the people in line of Rhee Seungman, was rural reconstruction movement based on the westernization theory. The idea centered on the creation of cooperatives following the model of Denmark, agricultural reforms based on the model of Ireland, and absorption of surplus agricultural population into cities through industrialization. Second, the rural movement of Presbyterian Church, which was led by the people in line of An Changho and Cho Mansik, was a movement based on the christianism. They recognized the causes of the rural problems as economic bankruptcy, cultural degradation, and moral depravity. And they were willing to build the model rural community centering around the church. Christian national movement under the Japanese colonial rule started as a policy gradual improvement, stressing the importance of personal self-reformation or creation of modem citizenship. It also pursued industrialization centering around small and medium enterprise, and around rural reconstruction based on independent small-farm system such as cooperative. It anticipated national union and liberation, too, which was based on the principle of pubic opinion of civil society. In this respect, the political-economic ideas of christian national movement was a nationalism of civil society which was based on the principle of liberalism and tried to protect the interest of a new middle class. In this period, the groups of christian nationalists tried to associate with the landlords and the capitalists, not tenants and laborers. And it was supported by the political line of gradual progressivism, not of the civil revolution and an absolute liberation. After the Korean Liberation, they participated in establishing the ideas of capitalism and the principle of liberal democracy in South Korea. It is in this point that we can relate the historical implications of the christian national movement with the division of Korean Peninsula.

CONFUCIAN VIEW ON HUMAN SUFFERING

Lourenco Elisio Joaquim Tala 서강대학교 일반대학원 2019 국내석사

ABSTRACT Confucian view on Human Suffering Lourenco Elisio Joaquim Tala Department of Religious Studies Graduate School Sogang University The purpose of this thesis is to look deeper into the Confucian view on Human Suffering. The theme of human suffering has always been tackled as a central theme in various reflections about the mystery of man and how he is called into existence. Suffering in all its aspects pervades the life experience of all people. The biblical writers had to deal with it in an effort to explain why it is present in the world, and how faith copes with it in living out a relationship with God. Confucianism understanding of human Suffering, starts from the view point that human nature is good, therefore this same human nature is on its regular and gradual process of self realization, which in this case involves pain and suffering as a constitutional elements. The ability to endure Suffering and pain is seen as a value in the process of self realization(self realization in a communal dimension, not in isolation). Confucianism believes that man is perfectible by self-efforts and one has to achieve self-realization through self-cultivation. Confucianism self-cultivation is a gradual process of combining all levels of the community in the process of self-transformation. Therefore, pain and suffering are often constitutive elements in the existential condition of human greatness. If we look to a tradition such as Christianity, we see a central place given to the problem of human Suffering. For Christians, Human suffering is considered to be a participation in the suffering of Christ. This is in the sense that Christ himself accepted to die on the cross for the salvation of mankind. Given the nature of Christ, man and God (through the mystery of incarnation), Christ’s resurrection and ascension into Heaven, introduces our human suffering to the nature of God. Therefore in God there is an open space for humanity introduced by Christ. Thus human suffering is something temporal, because there is the hope of overcoming it just as Christ did. We seek to conduct our study on how the problem of Human Suffering is explained in Confucianism without making value judgment on how this Tradition deals with it. Suffering is thus accepted as a fact of existence. There is no attempt made to deny it or to explain it away.

The Basic Needs of Christian Schools & Christian Education For Spiritual Growth In Pakistan

샤밈 조지 총신대학교 신학대학원 2013 국내석사

The Brief history of Pakistan The idea of a separate Muslim state for the Muslims of the sub-continent was first presented by the great philosopher, Sir Allama Iqbal in his presidential address to the All-India Muslim League at Allahabad in 1930. He proposed a separate Muslim state at least in the Muslim majority regions of the north-west. Allama Iqbal was of the view that Hindus and Muslims were two separate nations with different cultures, traditions and histories and that it was becoming increasingly difficult for Muslims to live in the Hindu dominant India. Later on, in his correspondence with Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah, he included the Muslim majority areas in the north-east also into his proposed Muslim state. Three years after his Allahabad address, a group of Muslim students at Cambridge, headed by Chaudhry Rahmat Ali, issued a pamphlet "Now or Never" in which, drawing letters from the names of the Muslim majority regions they gave the nomenclature of Pakistan to the proposed state.

In Search of A Pastoral Strategy for the Formation of Whole Christian through Pedagogy

김경철 New York Theological Seminary 2005 해외박사

Christian education is an area of practical theology because it is theological by nature and, at the same time, it cannot be separated from Christian life. Thus, church education must not be remained in the intellectual understanding of written contents. It is because faith in Christ cannot be perfect only with rich knowledge about Christ but must be related to the existence of believers. These days, there are not many Christians in Korean Church who serve the local community. It is because not only education in Korean society but also Christian education in Korean Church is focused on doctrines and laws. Current church education in Korean Church is not bi directional but uni directional. Due to the vertical and authoritarian education, church education in Korean Church from adult education to juvenile education is losing its spiritual vitality. The problem has been continued for several decades and, as a result, contemporary church education is facing serious difficulties. In addition, churches cannot suggest the vision of evangelism and regard it as the all of their mission to help pioneering churches in the countryside and overseas. Moreover, the vision and enthusiasm for serving the local community centering onKorean Church have gotten cold. In order to solve this problem ,Korean Church must criticize contradictions in contemporary church education, and changes the paradigm of its education structure from the cramming education to "problem raising education." This is why pedagogy is necessary in Korean Church today. The present study purposed to examine Korean Church and its members who became new whole Christians through the "pedagogy" of Paulo Freire. The present author presented a practical process that "the current church education like a bank deposit" in Korean Church is transformed into "church education of problem raising" through "conversation," "humility" and"love" among methods in Freire's pedagogy theory focused on the social phenomenon of how "the culture of silence" make most believers in the church passive beings as maintained by Paulo Freire. For this, the author has made efforts to throw away the violent and radical nature of pedagogy and to create the structure of horizontal pedagogy, which raises problems peacefully and evangelically, in Korean Church and believes that the efforts have been fruitful. In order to promote horizontal pedagogy structure in Korean Church, the author suggested methods of being mature Christians through the meetings of district leaders and encouragers, Sunday worships, Friday worships and morning worships, and executed the following plans from October 2003 to December 2004 in order to achieve the goal of "BeingKorean Church that grows whole Christians." In the first stage, the author announced a plan to minister the church as a horizontal pedagogy community based on the worship and education ofKorean Church and collected materials, and requested active cooperation and participation of all the believers. In the second stage, the author planted in the believers' mind the understanding of a mature Christian community by preaching "the life of mature Christians" and "education, service and fellowship in the community of the early church." In the third stage, the author developed the consciousness of pedagogy community through district worships, teachers' college, fathers' school, Bible study at church school, training camps, etc., aiming at "humble Christians," "practical and benevolent Christians" and "loving and serving Christians." In the fourth stage, the author organized "Gender Equality Committee," "Language Refinement Committee," "Family Counseling School" and "Open Church School Operation Committee" in order to examine closely whether church education in Seongmin Church were changing from bank deposit style to problem raising style for the last one year and to correct any problems discovered immediately. In the fifth stage, the author invited guest lecturers from outside and held seminars on "the image of mature Christians," "right Christian life" and "healing of human relations." These seminars aimed at inspiring the Christians with the sense of gender equality and the image of serving Christians. Grafting these pedagogy methods into God's evangelism, we promoted the movements of "Help two families a month" and "Share food with others in love." Furthermore, we formed "Seongmin Green Environment Club" and held events such as "Saving recycled products" and "Sharing recycled products" at the local community. In addition, we made hospice activities at hospital in the community. Through these events, believers in Korean Church experienced practical life as mature Christians. As a result, the local community came to have quite positive perception on Korean Church and believers in Korean Church, who had lived a powerless religious life, came to be humble and mature Christians who lived the life of light and salt. The author completes the one year long research, wishing that all efforts made in the research may bear more practical fruits in the life of the author and Christians in Korean Church.

韓國 基督敎人의 救援意識 分析 및 相談學的 活用方案 硏究

김성환 亞細亞聯合神學大學校 大學院 2000 국내석사

The main purpose of Christian counseling is not just to solve the problems of counselees, but to recover and develop the counselee's relationship with God. Thus, the counselor needs information about the counselee's spiritual condition which includes the status of his or her conversion. Nevertheless, only God can know the real status of the spiritual condition of the counselee. For this reason, the writer proposes analyzing a counselee's salvation awareness. In this way, the counselor can analyzes the spiritual condition of counselees, but unfortunately, many Korean Christians have non-biblical salvation awareness. So, the purpose of this thesis is to provide one of the models which analyzes and corrects counselees' salvation awareness. Ⅰ. A Study of the Relationship between Evangelism and Christian Counseling. In this section, firstly, the theological and biblical definitions and meanings of Christian counseling and evangelism are discussed. Also various methods of evangelism are explored and evaluated. The concept of Christian counseling is defined theologically and the relationship between evangelism and christian counseling is discussed. Ⅱ. A Theological Study for Evangelistic Counseling. To counsel more biblically and evangelistically, Christian counselors need to have clear, biblical concepts about theological issues like salvation, regeneration, faith, repentance, and the assurance of salvation. So the writer explores two types of faith development theories. Especially Engel's model is applied practically in this paper to facilitate more effective evangelistic counseling. And by examining various non-biblical views of salvation, we can infer their negative influences on Korean Christian. Ⅲ. A Practical Consideration of the Salvation Awareness of Korean Christians. In this section, the writer shows that many Korean Christians have a non-biblical salvation awareness by examining a lot of available statistical resources. In this way, we can know that biblical correction is necessary for most Christian counselees. Ⅳ. Biblical Examples of Evangelistic Counseling. In the bible, many instructions are relate to evangelistic counseling. The writer especially explores several examples of counseling by Jesus Christ in this section. As we know well, Jesus Christ provides the best examples for counseling evangelically. Through this study, we can obtain many principles and methods for evangelistic counseling. Ⅴ. The Actual Evangelistic Counseling Cases by Analyzing Salvation Awareness. This section presents the salvation awareness in evangelistic counseling cases which are based on responses to the counselee's twenty questions dealing with spiritual condition in reference to their relationship to God. This eight steps analytical model applies Engel's faith development model to practical evangelistic counseling. Conclusion. The following conclusions are drawn from the above studies, Firstly, to fulfill the main purpose of Christian counseling, the counselor needs to consider the spiritual status of the counselee relation to his or her relationship with God. Secondly, evangelism is closely related to counseling, especially in both of their purposes. Therefore evangelistic counseling is necessary in Christian counseling. Thirdly, Many Counselees have non-biblical views about salvation. Thus in practical Christian counseling, biblical analysis and correction is needed. Fourthly, in Cristian counseling, the development of various models which help to improve the counselee's relationship with God is an urgent and necessary task.

THE TASK OF CHRISTIAN SCHOOLING FOR THE SPIRITUAL GROWTH OF YOUTH IN CAMBODIA

KIMSAN YET 고신대학교 대학원 2010 국내석사

Cambodia is still slow in the progressing of a long peace emerging from civil war and genocide from the past. Infrastructure is very basic, corruption squanders opportunities happen in country. In addition, the current problems our youth are facing are the decreasing morality in the family and society, the lack of faith in Christ, and the poor education available. Just as the problems tend to affect Cambodians’ youth in society, however, it is the teenagers who are in the best position to change their societies for the better, and work toward peace, so their character in education is important to impact on their country’s future. In order to do this effectively, Cambodian youth should be cultivated from the beginning in the proper instruction and guidance by learning God’s word to acknowledge Him and redefine their roles in their societies. For this reason, the Cambodian youth could receive true Christian education through the task of Christian schooling which will provide opportunities to know God’s Word and plan for them and their country’s peace as a whole, and by God’s grace, they will grow up to be Christian leaders and citizens of Cambodia. However, Christian schooling is important to the teenagers and for the country’s future simply because the Christian school has a fundamental rule based on the Biblical principle and worldview. It will equip the youth with the truth that will help them to overcome challenges of modernism and social culture to keep faith in Christ. Otherwise, Christian schooling provides the true vision, and purpose to responsive discipleship of Lord Jesus Christ. It deals with the value of the teaching and learning process, with the teacher’s qualifications that includes teaching method and attitude following Jesus the great Teacher. More than that, each administrator and teacher must use their positions and authority in modeling Christ-like attitude. Most importantly, the heart of the school is the curriculum which must be Christ-centered. It must seek to teach and explore all the areas of study and develop the gifts of the students which God has given them. Therefore, only the task of Christian schooling through Christian education is a possible solution for helping the youth to walk in God’s way. To effectively achieve this goal, the church, school, and family should work together to nurture the children and youth to live in Christ-likeness. The very heart of this study is for the youth to have changes in their attitudes and to live with more peace and love, honesty and humility in their hearts and minds to help each other, and love others and that is the goal of schooling for God’s glory.

CHRISTIAN WITNESS IN THE CONTEXT OF PERSECUTION IN INDIA : CHRISTIAN WITNESS IN THE CONTEXT OF PERSECUTION IN INDIA

Yangkhongam Baite 장로회신학대학교 대학원 2011 국내석사

I am going to write on ‘Christian Witness in the Context of Persecution in India. The Hindu fundamentalists have been engaging to protect the identity of Hinduism. They claim India to be Hindu nation. Hiebert writes, “Swami Dayananda Saraswati founded Arya Samaj (1875) to defend and reform Hinduism. His watch-word was “back to the Vedas,” and his emphasis was “India for Indians.” He wanted to remove Christianity and Islam from India, and make Hinduism the only religion of India.” His basis for maintaining Hindu identity was centre to the Hindu scripture. In 1939 the Rashtriya Swayam Sevak (RSS) chief, M.S. Gowalkar said, “Having declared that all others except Hindus are foreign elements. There are only two courses open to the foreign elements, either to merge themselves into the national race and adopt its culture, or to live at its mercy so long as the national race may allow them to do so and to quit the country at the sweet will of the national race.” He sees Christianity as foreign element which has no place in India. His top priority was to absorb or eliminate Christianity from the soil of India. The Hindu ideology of nationalism creates a threat to Christians being in India. Clarke observes, “Again the use of religion for the purpose of uniting the nation under the ‘Indian’ banner is quite obvious. Just as with Orientalism, nationalism took over the project of construing India as a unitary and homogeneous entity which was religiously one, and uncovered the fact that the essence of this religiousness was Hindu.” The Hindu fundamentalist ideology of Hindutva has created disharmony between Hindus and Christians. This has resulted in the minority Christians suffering persecution. Numbers of churches and Christians houses have been burnt down and many people have been tortured and killed. In this context it is important to see how Christians respond in a way which promotes the gospel. This is a study to bring out the causes of persecution that creates disharmony between Hindu fundamentalists and Christians. This work is an attempt to prepare Christians to keep the faith and witness Christ in the midst of persecution in biblical way. I will be also looking how Indian Christians have responded. This work will answer the questions Indian Christians are asking, how Christians should respond to religious violence. If the Hindus see Christianity as exotic, what is the responsibility for the native Christians to become a native religion? It is the need of the hour to recognize the causes of violence and seek ways and means to overcome.

Les apports du christianisme en Coree : Les fondements extrareligieus de l'implantation des missionnaires francais en Coree au XIXe siecle

이종희 Universite de Paris 7 2003 해외박사

한국 기독교의 전래(19세기 프랑스 선교사들의 종교와 그외 문화 활동의 영향) 17세기 초부터 북경을 드나드는 사신을 통하여 한자로 저술된 천주교 서적들이 조선에 드어와 지식인층에게 신앙의 차원이 아닌 지식의 차원에서 탐구되어졌다. 조선의 성리학은 이념적 폐쇄성으로 사회모순을 해결하기에 부적합하고 봉건 관료, 양반 지배층은 부패하여 새로운 이념을 갈망하였다. 서양 서적들에 담겨진 신문명, 과학기술은 조선사회의 모순을 해결할수있는 가능성으로 받아들여져, 실학 사상가들에게 카톨릭은 서양의 과학기술을 만들어내는 사상으로 받아들여졌다. 실학파인 남인 소장 학자들에 서학이라는 새로운 학풍이되었고, 이후 권철신 정약전 이벽등에게서 천주교 신앙이 싹트게되었다. 이벽은 진리탐구에 열심으로,북경에서 베드로란 세례명으로 세례받고 돌아온 이승훈과 1784년 말에 자발적으로 신앙공동체를 조직한것이 세계유일의 특징이다. 1831년 조선교구가 북경교구의 관할에서 벗어나 초대교구장으로 브뤼기에르 주교가 임명되고 파리외방 전교회는 계속하여 선교사를 파견하여, 모방 샤스땅 앵베르신부가 입국하여 기해박해 때에 순교했다. 1876년 강화도 조약으로 일본에게 문을 열게되어 서구 열강도 물밀듯 들어왔고 1886년에 프랑스와의 조약을 통해 선교사들에게 치외법권의특권과 포교의 자유가 주어져 교회는 계속 발전하여 고아원 양로원 교육사업에 열심을 내며 한국사회와 문화의 변화에 많은 영향을 주었다. Si les missionnaires étrangers n'ont dans l'ensemble guère remporté de succès dans le Tiers-Monde (peu nombreux sont les convertis en Afrique, en Inde, en Chine ou au Japon), en revanche la Corée constitue un cas exceptionnel, où l'évangélisation a connu un succès inattendu. Au point de départ de notre recherche, il était important de souligner la stratégie de pénétration des Occidentaux en Extrême-Orient par le biais du négoce, de la diplomatie, puis de la force. Rien de tel en Corée où, nous l'avons vu, malgré les persécutions et les réfutations du dogme chrétien, dominent les jugements positifs, voire même de la reconnaissance chez les intellectuels du pays, à l'égard de l'adoption du christianisme: « Tout d'abord le christianisme nous a donné un enseignement sur Ï'hoinnu' et le Ciel, a i1//planté chez nous tin savoir scientifique (....) Le christianisme, ayant pénétré en Corée, y a exercé une grande influence pour nous apprendre à estimer notre propre langue nationale, développer un mode de vie fondé sur les sciences (le la nature, cultiver un esprit critique rationnel, développer l'esprit national, etc. », affirme ainsi Cho Kwang. résumant l'opinion de la plupart des intellectuels contemporains. Une conjonction de facteurs économiques, sociaux, politiques et idéologiques expliquent donc pourquoi les missionnaires ont pu si facilement faire adhérer leurs hôtes à une doctrine étrangère. Afin de comprendre la perméabilité du contexte coréen aux idées et dogmes religieux venus d'Occident, nous avons donc tout d'abord procédé à un rappel des conditions historiques, politiques et socioculturelles qui précédèrent et entourèrent l'avènement des premiers missionnaires dans tout l'Extrême-Orient puis plus précisément en Corée. Comme premier facteur contextuel, nous avons précisé que les premiers échanges chrétiens -confucianistes en Extrême-Orient se firent clans le sillage de Vasco de Gama au XVIe siècle, puis au XVIIe avec le développement des différents comptoirs coloniaux. Or, en dépit des tentatives d'évangélisation qui accompagnaient les démarches commerciales, toute mission était interdite en Chine depuis déjà un certain temps.alors que dans le même temps, le christianisme s' épanouissait progressivement en Corée. Car. plus qu'en Chine et au lapon, les théories chrétiennes trouvèrent un écho favorable sur le terreau de la crise morale et politique que traversait le régime féodal en Corée . En outre, alors que les bonzes japonais rejetèrent violemment le christianisme en associant celui-ci aux vices et aux objets des Européens, le clergé lettré coréen reconnut dans l'enseignement et les vertus des chrétiens une prolongation de la doctrine confucéenne. En Extrême-Orient et plus encore en Corée, à l'instar du père Schall au XVIIe siècle, les missionnaires deviennent des scientifiques. Au départ, en effet, le missionnaire catholique est avant tout perçu et apprécié pour ses connaissances innovantes en matière d'astronomie, de mathématiques, de cartographie, alors que le confucianisme est essentiellement une cosmogonie. Or, pendant longtemps, comme nous l'avons analysé, l'étude des sciences occidentales fut considérée par l'intelligentsia comme un jeu intellectuel, plutôt que comme une possibilité de développement technique. Ce sont surtout l'astronomie et les calendriers apportés par « les savants chrétiens » qui attiraient d'abord l'attention des Coréens. Du XVIIIe au XIXe siècle nous avons indiqué en quoi la stratégie et les apports des missionnaires chrétiens se caractérisent par des allers et retours entre les contenus strictement religieux et les sphères extrareligieuses. Les livres chrétiens, accueillis dans un cercle restreint au début, suscitent peu à peu un intérêt plus large. implantant la foi chrétienne d'une manière définitive. Par l'introduction de cartes géographiques et de traités scientifiques à la suite des contacts avec les missionnaires, les Coréens jusqu'alors isolationnistes, persuadés que l'Orient était le monde entier et croyant en la supériorité de la culture confucéenne. prennent conscience de l'existence de l'Europe et de sa civilisation. Notre recherche a pu par ailleurs mettre en évidence que la rencontre des lettrés coréens et du clergé européen s'inscrit avant tout comme une rencontre entre cieux conceptions théologiques qui s'envisagent sur un pied d'égalité des savoirs, ce qui fut loin d'être le cas pour d'autres contextes de colonisation assortie d'évangélisation forcée. L'essor du christianisme en Corée s'explique en effet d'abord par l'important travail de mise en évidence des correspondances nombreuses existant entre les enseignements respectifs des « sages » Jésus et Confucius, né des rencontres incessantes entre intellectuels des deux bords. Clandestins au début, puis assumés par la suite, ces échanges ne furent pas initiés sous l'angle théologique mais d'abord à partir de thématiques scientificométaphysiques. Parallèlement, au delà du renouveau moral puisé dans la rencontre avec les chrétiens pour lutter contre la corruption et le détournement des textes sacrés, les « sages-savants » coréens trouvent dans les discussions passionnées avec les Jésuites un prolongement spirituel de leur propre quête du vrai et de la connaissance du monde sensible et invisible. Comme nous l'avons démontré. Yi Pyôk, la grande figure médiatrice et introductrice de la foi chrétienne, exerça une influence considérable sur ses pairs coréens en s'adressant plus à leur intellect qu'à leur coeur de croyant. Comme nous l'avons également souligné, son principal ouvrage « Essence de la doctrine sacrée » relève plus d'une démonstration de la « vérité » de l'évangile que de la foi aveugle du converti illuminé par la grâce divine : Dieu n'y est plus présenté comme une entité transcendantale, mais comme un principe directeur divisé entre le LI et le KI, deux entités réunissant la matière et l'âme, le cosmos et l'élan de l'esprit . Cette approche induit dans les âpres débats de « spécialistes » coréens et européens une forte imprégnation astronomique et pragmatique, ce qui nous fait dire qu'il s'agit là d'une approche originale dans l'histoire des missions évangélisatrices catholiques, une approche du christianisme « à la coréenne », raisonneur, imprégné de scientisme et de doute critique. Malgré l'opposition de Rome, pour laquelle « l'adaptation » du christianisme est hérétique, et les persécutions importantes qui accompagnent l'implantation des missionnaires tant en Chine qu'au Japon et en Corée, les conversions se multiplient parmi les sphères les plus éclairées de la population. Un peu partout, se constituent de petites communautés de chrétiens indigènes issus de la noblesse savante. Les jeunes intellectuels aristocrates, las du formalisme confucéen, s'enthousiasment au XVIIIe siècle pour ce qui leur apparaît d'abord comme une science. l'étude des textes théologiques. Naît alors une école de pensée appelée « connaissance pragmatique » (Silhak) qui, nous l'avons vu. jouera un rôle central dans la diffusion du christianisme en Corée. I1 s'ensuit que ce pays a fini, grâce à sa rencontre avec l'Occident, par faire son entrée sur la scène internationale. Dans l'histoire de la Corée, cet événement représente un véritable changement d'orientation. Comme le souligne Cho Hyông-yun, « depuis cette rencontre, le pays court vers le monde extérieur en s'éloignant de plus en plus de son ancienne tradition » Cet attrait du christianisme a pour résultat sa pérennisation sur le sol coréen. C'est ainsi que, d'après des statistiques fournies par le ministère de la Culture et de l'Information, en 1983 les chrétiens représentaient 17,5% de la population (soit environ 7 000 000), dont 13,45% de protestants (5 300 000) et 4%de catholiques (1 600 000). Cette présence chrétienne atypique, dans laquelle certains croyants voient même la réalisation d'un dessein providentiel, a quelque chose d'unique au monde, du moins pour l'Eglise catholique, « qui a été fondée sur l'initiative des Coréens euxmêmes et non par suite (les cf forts des missionnaires » Ce succès s'explique bien, comme nous l'avons démontré, par le fait que la religion catholique fut introduite en Corée, vers la fin du XVIIIe siècle, à un moment où la société coréenne était en train de passer d'une structure ancienne à une structure moderne. Plusieurs symptômes annonçaient la quête d'une nouvelle société. Notre recherche a notamment permis de mettre en évidence quelques facteurs importants de cette perméabilité du terreau coréen au apports chrétiens : premièrement, la rapidité avec laquelle se transmettaient les nouvelles connaissances, via des intellectuels avides de connaissances ; deuxièmement, le distinguo immédiatement opéré par les Coréens entre les deux aspects de la « Science occidentale » : la religion et la science ; troisièmement, l'attitude à la fois prudente et patiente des lettrés qui ont pris tout leur temps, environ deux cents ans, pour examiner sous plusieurs angles cette religion chrétienne ; enfin, la fondation de l'Eglise catholique par les seuls Coréens, sans l'aide de missionnaires étrangers pendant des dizaines d'années, ce qui établit durablement leur appropriation d'une identité chrétienne coréenne. Dans de telles circonstances sociales, le catholicisme a pu pénétrer facilement en Corée et y remplir un rôle de promoteur pour la formation d'une société moderne, selon l'opinion de la plupart des historiens coréens. En effet, rendus particulièrement utiles sur le terrain précieux des progrès commerciaux, politiques, médicaux et sociaux, les chrétiens lurent pour longtemps assimilés par la société coréenne aux progrès et à la science moderne. Si, initialement, cc furent surtout l'astronomie et les mathématiques qui intéressaient les Coréens, ce sont peu à peu tous les champs scientifiques qui attirèrent leur curiosité, puis créèrent des émules autochtones. Devenus indispensables pour l'établissement du calendrier, ainsi qu'en architecture ou dans le secteur des travaux publics, les missionnaires, industrieux et techniciens, s'illustrèrent également dans les domaines de la botanique et de l'artisanat. Enfin, ils s'investirent dans l'imprimerie en vue de diffuser au maximum parti les esprits coréens Leurs savoirs et techniques en y glissant souvent des contenus religieux. La signature du traité coréano-français en 1886 marquera un tournant dans le développement du catholicisme coréen, la multiplication des oeuvres sociales et culturelles qui en découla, notamment via l'arrivée des religieuses, devant accroître par la suite le rayonnement socioculturel de 1'Eglise en Corée. Le domaine linguistique constitua un pôle éminemment central dont les enjeux rayonnèrent dans tous les échanges culturels franco-coréens. D'où l'investissement important des premiers missionnaires dans l'établissement de dictionnaires et dans le travail de traduction d'un nombre important d'ouvrages européens en coréen. Si un amour authentique de la langue et de la culture coréennes s'est largement manifesté parmi les missionnaires, le haut clergé catholique ne perdit jamais de vue la nécessité de procéder à une adaptation conceptuelle, donc linguistique, au contexte intellectuel coréen, afin de diffuser plus facilement un dogme difficilement accessible a une civilisation peu familiarisée avec l'abstraction. Par ailleurs, les missionnaires catholiques rivalisèrent avec leurs concurrents protestants pour créer hospices, oeuvres sociales, et écoles alors que, dans une première étape, ils visaient essentiellement l'établissement de séminaires pour former de futurs prélats d'origine coréenne. Par ce biais indirect, ils consolidaient davantage encore les bases déjà fermement ancrées sur le socle coréen de la culture occidentale, terreau propice au processus des conversions. Aidée par ce contexte de besoin d'ouverture au progrès, l'Eglise catholique a pu agir, directement ou indirectement, sur le développement de l'histoire de Corée. On pourrait en déduire la signification qu'a eue dans l'histoire de Corée la création du vicariat apostolique de Chosôn en 1831. Les prélats occidentaux étendirent leur influence bien au-delà du seul aspect scientifique ou diplomatique, puisqu'en raison d'un nombre important de convertis d'origine coréenne, ils profitèrent des moindres conflits mettant en cause ces derniers, pour s'immiscer dans les domaines administratif et commercial relevant des affaires intérieures coréennes. Cette immixtion constante et le règlement heureux d'un certain nombre de ces affaires ouvrirent de plus en plus les esprits coréens aux méthodes importées d'Occident Mais se demande Cho Kwang, « l'Eglise de ce temps a-t-elle fait tout ce qu'elle pouvait et était elle capable de répondre d'une façon satisfaisante aux besoins du peuple de cette époque?. (...) Eu effet, pour l'historien coréen, « l'Eglise n'étant ni unie organisation sociale, Iii une organisation politique, son influence louis les domaines politique et social a été limitée. En revanche, l'Eglise pouvait avoir une action plus efficace dans le domaine culturel. » De son côté, Chang Dong-ha pose sans détours la question : « le catholicisme a-t-il contribué au développeraient de la société coréenne par l'échange scientifique et culturel avec les pays occidentaux? » Bien que notre travail fournisse nombre d'éléments permettant de valider l'hypothèse du rôle central de la science et de la culture dans l'essor du christianisme en Corée, la littérature abondante relative à la Mission Etrangère de Paris dans ce pays nous donne des indices très contrastés quant à l'attitude des missionnaires sur le sol coréen. Oscillant entre un prosélytisme ethnocentrique et une ouverture à la culture locale, faite de fascination et d'acculturation, les échanges des missionnaires avec la population coréenne furent néanmoins régis par une stratégie d' « entrisme », clairement définie en haut lieu : il s'agissait d'utiliser tous les moyens possibles pour accroître le nombre cles conversions et implanter durablement l'église catholique sur le sol coréen. Au service de cet objectif, la science, l'éducation, la santé et la culture devaient jouer un rôle central, très vite amplifié du fait de l'intérêt que notèrent les premiers missionnaires chez leurs interlocuteurs « indigènes ». I1 apparaît clairement à travers l'histoire de cette implantation chrétienne, que la philosophie, la science, puis la médecine et les activités socio-éducatives furent utilisées chaque fois que les missionnaires éprouvèrent le besoin d'emprunter des voies détournées pour être acceptés. Dans les périodes plus calmes on trouve en effet des traces d'une volonté des missionnaires de limiter les activités d'ordre scientifique pour recentrer leur influence sur la foi, car ces religieux s'étaient rendu compte que celle-ci pouvait être mise en péril par les excès de la raison. Par ailleurs, compte tenu de la pérennisation du rejet provoqué par l'introduction forcée du christianisme dans la plupart des pays d'Asie où celui-ci a tenté de s'exporter, on ne peut donc nier les conséquences ambivalentes des missions, d'une part pourvoyeuses de progrès, et d'autre part rejetées pour leur para-colonialisme. Cette relativisation récente des apports extrareligieux des missionnaires laisse entrevoir sous quel angle la question a éventuellement pu être abordée jusqu'ici par les chercheurs chrétiens. Leur attitude manquant d'objectivité - on pourrait même la qualifier de « sentimentale » - elle les a peut-être empêché de regarder en face et d'expliquer certains phénomènes sensibles qu'on constate actuellement en Corée, tels que L'expérience du Saint-Esprit', la multiplication des sectes, les réunions de prière à l'aube, les rencontres à domicile ou à l'extérieur pour réanimer la foi. Ainsi, selon Cho Hyông-yun. « les chercheurs chrétiens se contentent d'exprimer leur inquiétude e11 considérant tout simplement ces phénomènes commune des aspects d'une sorte (le chamanisation du christianisme. Leur attitude et leur, façon (le voir les choses ne sont pas, en fait, sans' lien avec la mentalité coréenne relative à la religion(...) Pour bien comprendre le christianisme en Corée, 1l est nécessaire, d'une part, de le comparer avec la façon aç'on dont 1l est pratiqué dans les autres pays d 'Extrême-Orient et, d'autre part, de l'envisager à l'intérieur de l'ensemble des religions de la Corée.»

Christianity and National Parks: Seeing God in Nature-Based Experiences

Jackson, Sarah Kansas State University ProQuest Dissertations & T 2021 해외박사(DDOD)

To unveil the multilayered experiences which Christians undergo when engaging in nature-based experiences, this research utilized a multidimensional approach to address and further comprehend the characteristics of these moments. Specifically, this research aimed to understand how Christians experience God within nature-based experiences and further how tenets within the structure and expressions associated with their religious belief system address the overarching phenomena and associated lenses. Through the content of the primary phenomena, the lenses which were of focus include investigations concerning the extrinsic composition of these experiences (i.e., presence or absence of individuals, natural contexts and involved surroundings, and engaged religious expressions (i.e., prayer, worship, and using biblical- or religious-based resources)) and how this brought forth intrinsic outcomes as a result (i.e., descriptions regarding experiencing God and influence in solidifying or transforming the environmental mindset of Christians). As a result, this research was completed in a cumulative manner which involves three ventures which act as independent studies while collectively contributing to an overall, enhanced understanding of the complexity of the experienced phenomena primarily in situ (i.e., in nature as defined by NPS units) and ex situ as well (i.e., potential completion of pro-environmental behaviors). Further, this research involved three distinct research questions to inform the progression of this compound endeavor and they include: 1) “How, if at all, do Christians experience God in national parks during communal or group-based ventures?”, 2) “How, if at all, do Christians experience God in national parks during moments of solitude?”, and 3) “How do Christians experiencing God in national parks describe their environmental mindset?”.Regarding the first question, semi-structured interviews in alignment with a phenomenological framework and qualitative foundation were completed in the research settings of Great Smoky Mountains National Park and Indiana Dunes National Park in summer 2020 to approach this inquiry focused on the influence of experiencing God during social interaction through group-based or communal activities in nature (i.e., defined as an accessible NPS unit). Three sources including 1) individuals partaking in a worship service within an NPS unit(N = 15), 2) individuals who voluntarily engaged in an extended, overnight stay through a religious-based retreat within an NPS unit (N = 5), and 3) individuals who voluntarily chose to serve as employed personnel who facilitated Christian-based religious offerings (i.e., worship service) within an NPS unit (N = 16). With 36 total participants, shared expressions amongst sources provided notable and collective highlights of the focus phenomena within this specific unit of the overall research process (i.e., experiencing God during social interaction within nature-based experiences). Specifically, participants portrayed an overall amplification of experiencing the focus phenomena through a “triangle effect” (Mike). This effect involved the components of social interaction, nature, and God which represented the overall amplification of their experiences within nature (i.e., NPS units) which brought forth both individual and collective moments. When engaging in group-based or communal activities, participants relayed the impact of the present “triangle effect” (Mike) and further the foundational role of experiencing God that formed an enhanced level of authenticity in their ventures, such as through in-depth and raw connections with both present individuals, their natural surroundings, and God as well. Overall, participants reflected an increased probability to spend time in nature with others as a result of these formative moments to not only foster meaningful relationships with others and nature, but observe God in varied, renewed exposures as a result of the infiltrating “triangle effect” (Mike).Concerning the second question, the implementation of an additional lens in informing the overarching phenomena of focus in consideration of employing an alternate approach to understand the specifics of experiencing God in nature-based experiences by Christians was used. The involved research settings and implemented interviews involving three sources were maintained as the used methods in reference to all three research questions. In further recognition of the second inquiry including the role of solitude within the ventures of those who identified as Christians, participants conveyed the ability to engage in solitude through both the presence and absence of individuals. While solitude was associated with executing aloneness, participants shared that solitude could occur when in a collective context due to the provision of opportunities to retreat from the group-based moments. Further, participants highlighted the notable role of solitude to provide pause in their nature-based experiences. It is through the pause of solitude and electing to engage in this brief or momentary halt of occurrences which compose a world-based context where participants were able to experience God through opportunities to acquire a renewed or revived perspective concerning their surroundings (i.e., natural and present individuals in a group-based venture), their position within life, their purpose in life, and further their relationship with God. It is through solitude and the involved pause where participants portrayed the progression of transcendental, influential, and pivotal experiences with God in His creation that could serve as filters through which to shift their overall state and reinforce their perceived self-reliance and self-efficacy and through their identification in God to further apply the gathered rejuvenation in all life-based situations (i.e., difficult inhibiting occurrences ranging to climatic or peak experiences).In consideration of the third question, this inquiry provides an all-encompassing investigation regarding the environmental mindset Christians maintain in consideration of their experiencing of God and specifically within nature-based moments. This question aimed to unveil varying influences and roles within the overarching, identified environmental mindset of Christians by describing how natural (i.e., surrounding natural context involving an NPS unit), religious (i.e., expressions including worship, prayer, and using biblical- or religious-based resources), and environmental focuses (i.e., viewpoint of the environment and associated in situ and ex situ behaviors) informed the environmental mindset of participants. Based on this compound approach involving a range of varied focuses to address the complex nature of the applicable phenomena, participants shared a unified reflection of an overarching environmental mindset which is undergirded by their relationship with God. Further, this relationship progressed the formation of an ingrained desire to act in a manner which is reflective of stewardship as directed by the character of God and His biblical-based mandates (i.e., Holy Bible). With this overall baseline, the conveyed environmental mindset of participants was also conveyed by highlighting a varied set of focuses including social, environmental, and religious. Participants expressed their overall environmental mindset as one that places significance on the existence of environmental justice issues and the need for amplifying humanitarian efforts, enhancing pro-environmental and environmentally conscious behaviors and continuously evolving perspectives, and applying this overarching mindset in a manner which ultimately conveys respect for God’s creation and His primary role as the Creator of existence. As a result, participants displayed their environmental mindset as one that is diverse in its composition, but mainly desires to express gratitude to God through conscious behaviors which recognize Him through the furthering of an in-depth relationship and applying this meaningful intrinsic “fabric” within the interactions they have with both nature and individuals as well.

A constructive theology for christian mission in Myanmar

Saw Shee Sho Sung Kong Hoe University 2007 국내박사

The aim of my theological reconstruction is to present a theology that relates to the present day Myanmar context, and that would follow up with concrete praxis in the daily lives of the Christians in the country. Yet all races or ethnic groups and religious groups acknowledge the fact that they live on the same land, drink the same water and have the same experience of sufferings and struggles under the country's existing. Nowadays, Theology in Myanmar has been formulated and communicated orally as pulpit theology. Therefore theology needs to see changes and development in the church. Contextual theology must be ecumenical. There must be bridges between Christians of various denominations and with peoples of other faiths. Contextual theology must make sure that God alone is supreme. In practicing theology, in Myanmar's context, we must always be conscious of the changing situation. Theologically Christians are fighters against the power of evil which prevents the possibility of such common survival. Thus, the church is commanded to fight suppression, on behalf of the poor and the oppressed, to liberate them and to restore their human rights. The church is not an organization which intends to take political power, but in order to carry out its mission; the church sometimes is positioned in conflict with a political power. In the church's relationship to society, Christian participation should be more visible in the decision-making body of the nation. Not only Latin American Christology but also Koren Minjung Theology is in fact being worked out by comparing the present-day situation with the historical Jesus. Economically we are all struggling for our daily- basic needs for survival. In this economic struggle we witness the rich getting richer and the poor getting poorer everyday. Today our living is not for us but for others, especially those who are marginalized in society because of our evil political, economical and social order systems. All these are the most appropriate situations in which to produce a Liberation Theology unique to Myanmar. Socially suffering is interconnected. Bad economic policy not only drives people into poverty, but also affects the moral lives of all the people. "The end justifies the means" seems to prevail in everybody's mind including the Christians. Therefore corruption occurs in all areas of the lives of the people. Politically also, both Christians and Buddhists are involved in the same experience of hoping and struggling for true democracy and human rights in the country. Therefore the people in Myanmar need to strive for unity, in their respective communities, religions, races, etc. The journey of the people of Myanmar must bean ecumenical journey, which is to construct justice, unity and peace. It is the reign of God in which justice, freedom, equal rights, unity and peace can be obtained. In relation to spirituality, the churches in Myanmar need to redefine what their spiritually means in order to meet the pressing needs of the church and society. To be more authentic, we need to approach the present Myanmar Buddhists and try to make them reveal their real attitude towards Christianity and Christians. We must also know the weaknesses of the Churches. The particular problem with the churches in Myanmar is that the pastors and church leaders are too conservative in nature. They find it hard to let go of their traditional belief that salvation is possible only through the church, and through evangelization. Even if they accept the idea of salvation as possible in other religions they would not dare to utter it for fear of offending the members of the church. This is true of all our protestant churches in Myanmar. Therefore Christians who are living amongst a pluralist society in Myanmar need to have an inclusive concept and to maintain this stand. The life of the Church in Myanmar can be reflected in the life of Israel exiled in Babylon. Through their own experiences as exiles in Babylon, Israel began to understand a new theology concerning God's purpose for them, in a strange and foreign land. In that land they learned to sing new songs of praise to the Lord and to settle down peacefully with the Babylonians. Through the Israelite presence in Babylon the glory of God was seen and praised. The Israelites were a light to the Babylon nation. The same can be said of the Christians in Myanmar. The Christians in Myanmar must now search for a new understanding of the meaning of their call to be among their Buddhist neighbors. Although they were born and grew up in the same country, God has chosen the Christians in Myanmar and "settled" them among the Buddhists with a purpose of being a light to them. Every believer in Myanmar must bear his/her own cross in the footsteps of Christ. Christ himself demands that everyone who would follow him should live in his likeness. Christ's ministry shows that the selected twelve disciples transformed the whole of human society. Being a Christian in Myanmar is to transform or to liberate our society into God's will. In Mark 12:27 "He is God not of the dead, but of the living". God who is revealing His truth and His will to living men through the Holy Spirit, seeking to bring His kingdom in the world through living people, God with us, today and in all the tomorrow.