필리핀 이주 기지촌 여성 ‘쥬시걸’의 민족지적 연구

한정우 이화여자대학교 한국여성연구소 : 이화여자대학교 한국여성연구원 2014 여성학논집 Vol.31 No.2

기지촌은 지금 필리핀 여성들이 과거의 ‘양공주’를 대체하고 있다. 본 연구의 목적은 참여관찰과 심층 면접을 통해 평택 주한미군 기지의 유흥업에 종사하는 외국 이주여성들의 이주의 동기와 과정 그리고 현지에서의 삶의 양식을 밝히는 민족지적 연구에 있다. 성매매 여성을 인신매매의 수동적 피해자로만 보는 시각으로부터 탈피해 한국으로의 이주 경험을 여성들의 주체적인 선택이나 삶의 전략의 하나로서 분석한다. 신자유주의 세계화 속에서 필리핀 농촌의 붕괴와 필리핀 정부의 해외 이주노동 장려 정책, 이들을 수입하는 한국 사회의 흡인 요인을 고려하면 필리핀 여성의 한국 기지촌으로의 유입은 여성의 성을 매개로 제도화된 해외이주노동에 의해 조장된다. 구조적 조건과 함께 이주과정에서의 여성의 선택의 과정을 분석하고 쥬시걸로서의 일의 과정에서 나타나는 착취적 요소와 이에 대응하는 여성의 전략을 살펴본다. 기지촌 필리핀 여성 이주자들은 본국에 송금할 수 있는 능력을 가진 노동자로서 독립적이기도 하고 의존적이기도, 기략이 풍부하기도 하고 착취당하기도 한다. 이들은 세계화의 경제 관계의 망에 갇힌, 그러나 로컬 차원의 행위자들이다. 일의 체계는 고용주가 이들을 최대로 활용하여 최대의 이득을 목적으로 하는 데서 비롯된 주스 할당량과 바 파인(bar fine)의 구조로 짜여진다. 이에 따라 계약 임금노동자로서 지급해야 하는 월급보다 성과급(주스 할당/바 파인)의 비중이 훨씬 높고, 이 부분에 계약서상에 없는 벌금이나 외출 금지의 벌칙이 적용된다. 기지촌 성산업에 유입된 필리핀 여성은 형식적으로는 외국인 계약 노동자이다. 그러나 이들이 계약을 하고 한국에 와서 일하는 모든 과정을 관철하는 하나의 본질(epiphany)은 ‘비(非)법, 편법, 합법으로 위장, 법망을 피하기’이다. 이들이 정부의 허가를 받은 외국인노동자로서 수입됐다면 입국 과정에서의 중개자 역할과 고용 과정에서의 벌금제 등 불합리한 고용 행위를 노동권에 입각해 논의하고 시정하여야 한다. The purpose of this study is to examine the experiences of Filipina entertainers at a military camp-town in Korea. It includes motivations, immigration processes, and their work in the clubs. With the ‘feminization of survival’ of the current globalization, the camp-town women have been replaced by foreign migrant women, especially from the Philippines. These women have been usually viewed as trafficked people, victims of forced sex slavery, a view that fails to recognize them as autonomous subjects. In analyzing their migration processes and lives in the clubs, I look at them not as passive agents, but rather as active ones. I have examined various structural causes as the defining factors in the Philippine women’s choices. The economic situation of the Philippines as a debtor country, along with the Philippines policy for enhancing work abroad, have led to this migration as a way of earning foreign currency. Contributing to this movement of women are the lax regulations of broker business, the efforts of the Korean camp town’s club businessmen to import foreign sex workers, a lax process of issuing entertainment visas, and lax regulations over military prostitution as a result of US-Korea relations. The women migrated to Korea to support themselves and their families back in the Philippines. Their considerations of intermarriage migration to Korea were also examined. However, their urgent financial needs have led them to reject patriarchal type marriages to Korean men. Before migration, they have access to information about their general work possibilities, but the extent and quality of this information seem to determine the conditions under which they migrate. Within the club they are struggling to expand their levels of bargaining power vis-à-vis their employers over required juice purchases and bar fines. Overall, Filipina camp-town women appear to be relieved that they are fortunate enough to migrate to Korea for higher incomes. They are independent, capable of sending money to their families, but are also dependent on labor processes which they sometimes circumvent. In order to protect them from exploitation, listening to their own voices should be the first step. To prevent abusive behaviors by brokers and club owners, there should be a system of checks and balances over labor standards, such as regular days off, lifting of the penalty system and curfews.

한국사회학에서의 여성연구 : 통합(integration)과 분리(segregation)의 이중전략

Jae Kyung Lee 이화여자대학교 한국여성연구소 : 이화여자대학교 한국여성연구원 2014 여성학논집 Vol.31 No.2

이 연구에서는 한국사회학에서 여성연구의 특성과 한계를 분석하고, 향후 여성(또는 페미니스트)사회학의 발전을 위한 이론적, 방법론적 과제를 논의하였다. 이를 위해 한국사회학회 기관 학술지인 『한국사회학』과 한국여성학회 기관학술지인 『한국여성학』을 주된 분석 자료로 사용하였다. 1980년대 이후 여성사회학 연구는 여성노동에 대한 관심증가, 여성학의 제도화, 여성운동의 확대, 여성 연구자 증가 추세를 배경으로 두 가지 경로를 통해 발전해 왔다. 우선 주류 사회학에서의 여성연구는, 1960-1970년대는 여성부재의 사회학, 1980-1990년대는 여성연구의 양적 성장이라는 특징을 보였다. 2000년대부터 여성사회학 연구는 양적 증가뿐 아니라 연구 주제 및 영역의 확장이라는 질적 성장을 이루어왔으며, 이러한 경향은 오늘날에 이르고 있다. 한편 1984년에 한국여성학회가 설립된 이후 페미니스트 사회학연구가 등장하면서 주류 사회학에서 분석되지 않았던 주제 및 개념을 분석하면서, 사적인 것으로 간주되었던 쟁점을 학문적 주제로 이끌어냈다. 방법론적으로도 심층 면접, 구술사 등 다양한 질적 방법을 사용함으로써 양적 분석에서 간과되어 왔던 여성경험의 의미를 해석해 왔다. 그러나 사회학 내에서 여성연구는 젠더 정체화와 젠더 양극화로 인해 젠더 위계와 불평등이 (재)생산되는 한계를 보여주었다. 따라서 향후 한국사회학에서 여성연구가 확장되고 사회학 지식생산에 개입하기 위해서는, 주류 사회학에서 여성연구의 확대와 주류 사회학과 거리를 둔 페미니스트 사회학 발전이라는 두 가지 전략, 즉 통합과 분리 전략을 넘어서 사회학에 대한 페미니즘의 보다 적극적 개입이 요구된다. This paper aims to discuss theoretical and methodological considerations for future development of feminist sociology by analyzing the implications and limitations of feminist studies in Korean Sociology. For this, it collects and analyzes data from the Korean Journal of Sociology and the Journal of Korean Women’s Studies. Given the context of increased interests on the issue of female labour, institutionalization of women’s studies, galvanizing of women’s movements, and a large increase of female scholars, feminist sociology studies have developed in two directions since 1980s: first, feminist studies in the mainstream sociology rarely focused on gender issues in the 1960s and 1970s, but quantitative growth and development was achieved in the 1980s and 1990s; second, feminist sociology studies have developed both quantitatively and qualitatively in terms of issues and concerns since 2000. On the other hand, with the establishment of the Korean Association of Women’s Studies in 1984, feminist sociology studies have carved out a vibrant new field of inquiry which has been regarded as a private and trivial issue within the mainstream sociology. Methodologically, they have developed diverse qualitative methods including in-depth interviews and women’s oral histories, which allow reinterpreting and reconstructing women’s experiences and memories that have been expressly denied and excluded. Feminist studies in Korean Sociology, however, have faced some limitations caused by gender polarization and gender identification. Based on these analyses, this paper sets an agenda for expanding feminist studies in Korean sociology and intervening in the process of knowledge construction in sociology. This goal can be achieved by two strategies, which may require strengthening feminist studies and developing feminist sociology by going beyond integration and segregation.

미국 여성학 학부 과정의 실태 및 분석 : 여성학 과정의 제도화를 위한 기초연구 : 여성학 과정의 제도화를 위한 기초연구

한국여성연구소 이화여자대학교 한국여성연구소 1986 여성학논집 Vol.3 No.-

It has been ten years since the Womens Studies course was opened for the first time in Korea. During those ten years, Womens Studies in Korea has grown remarkably; more than 20 universities/colleges have opened Womens Studies courses, the graduated program was established at Ewha Womans University, and the Korean Association of Women's Studies was inaugurated. However, looking at the undergraduate level, one can easily see the development was made in terms of quantity. In other words, even though the number of the universities/colleges which offer Womens Studies courses has increased, the courses are taught only at an introductory level. To solidify Womens Studies as a firmly established discipline, Womens Studies courses at the under-graduated level must be taught beyond the introductory level, and comprehended in the various disciplines closely related to Womens Studies. It is a well known fact that the United States has most advanced Womens Studies programs. For the establishment of the Womens Studies programs in Korea, it is worthwhile to analyze the present situation of the United States's Women's Studies undergraduate programs. Therefore, in order to seek the ways of establishing the Womens Studies program corresponding the Korean situation, we surveyed the academic options the programs confer and the ways the programs are operated The data for this paper were collected in the following way. 80 universities'colleges which have various Womens Studies program were chosen from "The Womens Studies Program 1985" in the Women's Studies Quarterly, Vol. XIII, and letters were sent asking about their programs. 23 universities' colleges replied, and out of them 20universities'colleges sent pretty detailed information about their programs. This information from the 20 universities'colleges served as the basis for the analysis of this paper. The results of the analysis can be summarized as follows: All of the Womens Studies programs of undergraduate schools in the U.S. are interdisciplinary, that is, they combined courses in various disciplines such as history, sociology, literature, language, art, political science, philosophy, psychology. Depending upon universities'colleges, womens studies program has various degrees, that is, some offer major, monir, double major, joint major, or certificates. It seems most of the Women's Studies courses are operated by programs or committee basis. Only one University, San Diego State University has an independent Women's Studies Department. Based on this survey, several suggestions are made in this paper for the establishment of the Womens Studies programs in Korea. They are enumerated from the easiest to the difficult one. Above all, it has to be emphasized that an organization is absolutely needed to control or take charge of the Womens Studies courses such as Womens Studies Departments, Women's Institutes, or Women's Centers in the universities' colleges. The first suggestion is about dividing Women's Studies course into two courses, i.e., Women's Studies I (Introductory course) and II (advanced course), or extending two-semester courses. By doing so, students would have a better access to the various womens issues and a deeper study on the course. The second suggestion is about making several disciplines open courses related to the Womens Studies issues. Form example, the Departments of Sociology could open a course, "Sex Role Socialization," the Department of History "Women and History," Law Departments "Legal Sexism," and so on. The third suggestion is about offering a minor or certificate system. In Korea, several universities have adopted a minor system. If many courses in Womens Studies are available, the Women's Studies can be easily set up as a minor. If there is and organization which takes charge of the Womens Studies courses, that organization could give a certificate to students who take a certain number of the Women's Studies courses. The fourth one is the installation of the Women's Studies Department, at the undergraduate level thought it is almost impossible in the current situation of Korea. Last but not the least, it is required to have workshops on Women's Studies continually among professors and instructors to make the Womens Studies consolidated as an established discipline.

韓國女性史 定立을 위한 女性人物 類型硏究 Ⅱ : 開港에서 3·1운동까지

이배용,전미란,최숙경,조형,박진숙,안연선 이화여대 한국여성연구소 1991 여성학논집 Vol.8 No.-

한국여성의 한국문화관과 통일의식

김정선 이화여대 한국여성연구소 1995 여성학논집 Vol.12 No.-

This is a survey research on Korean women's attitudes toward Korean culture and reunification issues. The research begins with the assumption that what we need to do for reunification is not an optimism derived from a favorable environment of international politics around Korean peninsula, but rather a serious effort to recover our nation's identity and solidarity. In addition, we attimpt to focus on the role of women in reunification movement where previous researchers paid attention to only men who have taken a major role in political, economical and military field. The data analyzed in this study was collected from a sample conducted by the autheor in Weptember, 1995, which consists of 310 Korean women selected upon the characteristics of age, working status, and the wxperiences with Noth Korea. There are three major areas of concern. First, this study intends to examine the women's attitudes toward traditional culture and Korean women's lives. In order to find out the way to recover Korean people's identity in particular, the respondents were asked their perceptions on the differences of women's lives in South and North Korea and perceptions on the Koreans living abroad. Second, Korean women's perceptions on and attitudes toward several issues of reunification were analyzed in order to provide the level of Korean women's concerns on reunification. The issues include the possibility and timing of reunification, reunification policy, international relations for reunification, and the expectations for the reunited Korean society. Finally, the status and roles of women in South and North Korea were compared and their wxpected roles in reunification were evaluated. The questions cover the South Korean women's image of North Korean women, comparison of women's status in South and Northe Korea, and the respective roles of South and North Korean women on the way to reunification. The results and the implications of this study can be summarised as follows. First, there are comsiderable differences on the attitudes toward Korean culture among South Korean women. The younger generation especially showed a very different perspective in many aspects. They are very liberal in terms of women's lives but nagative and passive toward reunification. These differences among Korean women imply a possible conflict between women in South and North Korea not alon those living abroad. More problems stem from the fact that Korean women tend to have a negative imageon North Korean women. These results lead to the conclusion that reunification is an urgent issue and we need great efforts to achieve it in the near future. Second, however, women in South Korea also seem to identify North Koreans as same nations and keep social solidarity wity them. The positive attitudes largely come from the emotional similarity among people in South and North Korea. In other words, reunification could be obtained once we overcome the external differences in social systems. For this, the provision of facts and informations about North Korea will be a first step toward unification. It is suggested that social education via various channels in addition to school education is necessary means to begin with. Concerning the women's role in reunification movement, the importance of women's association specefically aimed for reunification movement is emphasized. As far as the extent that women can play a role in political arena is limited as now in south Korea, it is inevitable to establish a formal organization which represents women's voice in reunification movement. According to the results of this research, this role has to be centered around the women who have already participated in social activities. In this sense, the roles of women professionals are greatly expected in Korean society. It is alseo found in this study that women in South Korea consider their participation in a non-governmental exchange as an effective approach to reunification. Korean women have potentials to play a significant role for reunification through their contributions to the expansion of civil communication and cultural interchange between South and North Korean people. Ⅰ. 서론 1. 연구의 목적 및 필요성 2. 연구방법 Ⅱ. 전체적 논의 1. 통일과 민족동질성의 문제 2. 통일과 여성의 역할 Ⅲ. 한국문화관에 관한 의식 1. 조사자의 객관적 특성 2. 여성생활에 대한 인식 3. 남북한 현실에 대한 인식 4. 한민족 동질성에 대한 인식 Ⅳ. 통일의식 1. 통일의 가능성과 시기에 대한 견해 2. 통일의 촉진 및 저해요인에 대한 이해 3. 통일의 방법과 정책 4. 통일을 위한 국제관계에 대한 이해 5. 통일이후 사회의 모습에 대한 전망 Ⅴ. 남북한 여성의 지위와 역할 1. 북한 여성에 대한 인식 2. 남북한 여성 지위에 대한 비교 3. 통일과정에서의 여성의 역할 Ⅵ. 요약 및 결론 참고문헌 영문초록

19세기 말 중국 여성의식의 계몽 : 부전족운동(不纏足運動)

이영란 이화여자대학교 한국여성연구소 : 이화여자대학교 한국여성연구원 2014 여성학논집 Vol.31 No.2

20세기는 중국 여성의 권리가 신장되었던 시기로, 19세기 말 즉 청(淸) 말 중국에서도 여성들을 가정으로부터 사회로 이끌어내고자 하는 움직임이 있었다. 이러한 움직임에 따라 여성들은 점차 변화하는 시대에 맞게 전통의 굴레에서 벗어나 새로운 세계를 향하고자 하는 갈망을 갖게 되었다. 유교사상이 지배적인 명청(明淸) 시기에 여성들은 가부장적 사회 안에서 생활해야 했다. 전족(纏足)은 명대에 이르러 성행하였고, 청대는 전족이 최고 성행을 이룬 시기이다. 높은 신분에서부터 농민층에 이르기까지 전족의 풍습은 확산되었다. 고통을 감수하며 행한 전족으로 여성 자신은 주체적 인격이 상실되고, 남성 중심 사회의 관상 내지 성적 종속물로 기록되었다. 이러한 전족에 대한 반대는 이미 북송말엽 차약수와 정이로부터 시작하였다. 개항 이 후 지식인층 사이에서 전족문제를 제기하였고, 선교사들은 전족의 비인간적 풍습을 규탄하였다. 전족을 하지 못하도록 실천적 운동으로 옮기기 시작한 것은 바로 태평천국시기이다. 태평천국 시기 광서지역 여성들 스스로가 여성들에게 전족을 풀 것을 권유하면서 중국 여성들에게 전족이라는 악습에 대해 생각하게 하는 단서를 마련하였다고 할 수 있다. 국민의 한 구성원으로서의 여성 의식을 갖게 하기 위해 변법지식인은 계몽활동을 하였다. 여전히 남성들이 중심이 된 조직체를 운영하였지만, 전족을 한 여성들과 가족들에게 전족이라는 악습의 폐지로 여성이 국가의 한 일원인 국민으로서 자각할 수 있는 기회를 마련하였다. 결국 그들은 학회 및 보간(報刊)을 통해 여학을 강조하였고 여성을 위한 교육시설을 설립하여 중국 여성의식의 확대를 위한 노력으로 국민국가를 이루고자 하였다. The twentieth century was a period when the rights of Chinese women were enhanced. At the end of the 19th century, which was the end of the Qing Dynasty, there was a movement where women emerged out of their households and into the society. According to this movement, they had a desire to create a new world outside of traditional bridles in order to keep pace with changing times. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, when Confucianism dominated the society, women had to stay within the framework of the family which limited the social activities of women. Foot binding prevailed during the Ming Dynasty and in particular, the Qing Dynasty experienced the peak in this foot binding custom. It had spread much farther from the upper classes to farmers in rural areas. Through painful foot binding, the subjective personalities of women were lost and they were regarded as objects of enjoyment or sexual subordinates in a male-oriented society. Opposition to foot binding began in Jiruoshui and Chengyi of the late Northern Sung. After the opening of ports to western forces, the issue of foot binding was presented by the intellectuals, and missionaries condemned the inhumane custom. It was during the Taiping Tien-kwoh period that the opposition to foot binding was developed into a practical movement. Women in Guangxi during the Taiping Tien-kwoh were recommended to release themselves from foot-binding, which was a chance for Chinese women to reconsider the evil custom of foot binding. Intellectuals in the Reform Movement led enlightenment activities to inspire women to become subjective women as members of the nation. Organizations involved with the women’s movement in that period were still centered on men, through which women with bound feet and their families could have the opportunity to understand the necessity for foot binding prohibition, and to become aware of themselves as members of their nation. Finally, women’s education was enhanced and welfare services were prepared through academies, newspapers, and magazines, which led to further development, and educational societies for women were established where the nation could make an effort to achieve and then enhance feminine awareness.

재생산적 전환 과정 속의 농촌지역 결혼이주자의 생산/재생산 활동

김현미,류유선 이화여자대학교 한국여성연구소 : 이화여자대학교 한국여성연구원 2013 여성학논집 Vol.30 No.2

본 연구는 한국농촌 여성이주자들의 일상성, 특히 생산과 재생산 영역에의 참여 과정을 분석함으로써 ‘재생산적 전환과정’의 맥락 속에서 이주자가 구체적으로 수행하는 다양한 노동의 의미를 분석한다. 본 연구의 기초 자료는 2011년 1월부터 8월까지 부여군에서 실시한 현지조사와 12명의 결혼이주여성과 3명의 선주민 가족에 대한 심층면접이다. 부여의 인구학적 변화와 이주자의 유입방식, 농업형태의 변화가 가져오는 농촌사회의 정치・경제적 변화의 구조 속에서 여성이주자들의 일상을 분석한다. 여성이주자들은 이주 후, 출산 및 육아와 살림을 포함한 가족 만들기, 한국어 수업과 며느리 되기 등을 포함한 한국화에 대한 요구 및 농업 및 경제활동 참여에 대한 중층적 요구를 조정하며 나름의 이주 목적을 현실화시키고자한다. 이는 여성이주자를 결혼이주자와 노동이주자로 구획하여 대상화하는 방식에서 벗어나 여성이주자가 생산과 재생산의 회로 안에서 중층적인 역할을 수행하고 자신의 라이프사이클 안에서 위치를 끊임없이 변화시켜내는 존재로 바라보는 것을 의미한다. 본 논문은 여성이주자의 역할이나 정체성이 고정된 것이 아니라 농촌의 생산/재생산 과정에 편입되거나 변형을 만들어내고 있는 과정에서 구성되는 것임을 강조한다. As global changes continue to occur in the reproduction system, intimate realms such as child-bearing, nurturing, and caretaking are being released from the private sphere and being given exchange value. International marriage as one form of the reproductive migration exposes migrant women to diverse definitions and performances of conjugal roles. This article aims at analyzing how migrant women are positioned in the spheres of social production and reproduction in rural Korea today and how they are reaping the material fruits of their labor. Based on nine months of fieldwork in Chungnam Province's Buyeo district in 2011, and in-depth interviews with 12 marriage migrant women and 3 Korean husbands, this article shows how migrant women maneuver their way through the complicated and contradictory demands of having to give birth, performing domestic duties, learning the Korean language, and participating in agricultural labor. While they live between the strata of reproductive and productive labor networks and within their own changing life cycles, migrant women who already work as fulltime housewives and farmers also enhance their economic resources as daily laborers. This article shows how migrant women navigate various life strategies to make their lives more bearable and comfortable in South Korea's rural areas.

제1차 동북아 여성학술대회 : "한·중 여성의 지위" 발제 요약

한국여성연구소 이화여자대학교 한국여성연구소 1993 여성학논집 Vol.10 No.-

초록없음

대학 내 성폭력 가해자 연구

나윤경,노주희 이화여자대학교 한국여성연구소 : 이화여자대학교 한국여성연구원 2013 여성학논집 Vol.30 No.2

슈워츠 외(Schwartz et al., 2001)는 여성주의 일상행위이론으로써 대학교가 ‘준비된 가해자-보호 장치 부재-적절한 피해자’ 등 성폭력 조건이 갖추어진 공간이라고 설명하였다. 본 연구는 가부장 사회의 상식이 된 ‘강간신화’와 더불어 대학교의 ‘준비된 가해자-보호 장치 부재-적절한 피해자’라는 조건이 다시 한국적 맥락과 만나 더욱 입체적으로 확장되어 대학 내 여대생들에게 성폭력을 가한다고 말하고 있다. ‘스승으로서의 교수’의 애정이 성폭력과의 경계를 흐리는 지점, 대학원생에 대한 교수의 상대적 권력을 크게 구성해내는 신자유주주의 상황의 청년실업 현상, 온전히 사적 공간인 교수 연구실, 교수사회의 학문적 공동체의 부재, 성폭력 사후 해석으로 동원되는 ‘술’, 여전한 여성에 대한 ‘성녀’(聖女)와 ‘성녀’(性女) 이분법, 그리고 가해자들의 반격까지 ‘준비된 가해자-보호 장치 부재-적절한 피해자’라는 지점을 확대하고 입체화 한다. 교과서적인 답인 것 같지만 대학 내 성폭력 예방교육과 대학 내 여성의 인권 신장이 여성에 대한 성폭력을 줄일 수 있을 것이다. Feminist routine activities theory explains why campus becomes the space where sexual violence takes place more often than expected. This study says that ‘rape myth’, the common sense of patriarchal societies, along with the constituents of feminist routine activities theory, which are ‘motivated offender-absence of guardians-availability of suitable targets, tends to be expanding in Korean society to produce sexual violence on campus. The relationship based upon apprenticeship between professor and student, high rate of youth unemployment, professors room as a purely private sphere, the absence of colleagueship among professors, Koreans’ conspicuous consumption of alcohol, the binary concept of women as mom and prostitute, and the backlash of the offender cubicalize the feminist routine activities theory. The researchers suggest that empowering education for women and men will reduce the sexual violence on campus.

한국여성사 정립을 위한 여성인물 유형연구 Ⅲ

최숙경,신영숙,이배용,안연선 이화여자대학교 한국여성연구소 1993 여성학논집 Vol.10 No.-

This paper explore Korean womens participation in educational, economic, social activities from 1919 to 1945-the period after the March 1 independence movement to the time of liberation from Japanese occupation. This period was characterized by the extension of womens access to the modern educational system and by the increase in womens participation in the formal sector, especially by learned professional women. Womens educational opportunity expanded beginning with the March 1 independence movement. Formal and informal educational institutions for women were gradually established by women and Christians. Greater educational opportunity for women contributed to reduced illiteracy rates and to a greater awareness of their oppressed position as women and as people of a Japanese colony. Although the principal intention of Japanese colonialists was to assimilate Korean people into Japanese culture through education, Korean men and women instead used their education to foster a consciousness of nationalism against Japanese rule. In this period, many women intellectuals trained by modern education at home and abroad came to work in various occupations as teachers, reporters, nurses, musicians, painters, dancers, novelists, poets, and pilots. They were pioneers for professional women in modern Korea. Among them were some women from lower classes (i.e. the commoners class) who elevated their social status through education or wealth. Professional women in this period pursued a "super woman image" as an ideal career womans model. However, they suffered from their double burden of household and workplace labor. Regarding womens economic activities, the participation rate of women in the economic sector during the period totaled 35%. The majority were rural and factory concentrated in such industries as textile, rubber, and rice milling. The content of women traditionally used to weave and grind various corns including rice as a ordinary household labor.) Japans monopolistic capitalists and colonialists exploited these women workers, as well as women drivers in the fishing industry. Such exploitation provoked a systematic womens labor movement, disputes on tenancy, and so on. In the meantime, women participated in various social organizations geared towards womens enlightenment, communist revolution, or national liberation. These activities inspired women to assume a feminist consciousness as well as a class consciousness and national identity. However, beginning in the 1930s, some of these womens organizations served as a pro-Japanese propaganda agency to implement Japanese imperialistic rule over the Korean peninsula. With the outbreak of World War II, Japan urged womens activities in social and economic sectors in order to mobilize and exploit the female labor force in Korea during the war. Yet, since Japanese colonial policy regulated the supply and demand of labor, womens activities in social and economic sectors were extremely limited. Despite these circumstances, Korean women gradually extended their activities in various sectors of society and struggled against gender and national discrimination under Japanese colonialism.