A study on the Transition of the Sichuanese Currency during the Northern Song Dynasty

( ILGYO JEONG ) 경남대학교 인문과학연구소 2022 人文論叢 Vol.57 No.-

In the Northern Song dynasty 北宋 (960-1127), iron coins in Sichuan province 四川 underwent three significant changes. First, after the annexation of Shu 蜀, the central government allowed only iron coins to be used in the Sichuan province. That caused a rapid decrease in cooper coin circulation there. Second, the government issued large coins, the coin of Jingde 景德大鐵錢 and Xianfu 祥符大鐵錢, to solve the coin circulation crisis. However, those coins nominal values differed from their actual values. That led to insufficient quantities of coins in circulation and inflation. Third, after the appearance of the unofficial paper currency jiaozi 交子, the demand for iron coins decreased. This tendency became more pronounced when jiaozi’s amount increased. That led to prices’ stabilization for a while. However, the overissue of jiaozi caused its downward adjustment. As a result, the policy lost its effectiveness. The root cause of the coin’s downward adjustment in the area was the government's fiscal deficit.

Magnetic Sensor-Based Detection of Picoliter Volumes of Magnetic Nanoparticle Droplets in a Microfluidic Chip

Ilgyo Jeong,Young-Jae Eu,Kun Woo Kim,XingHao Hu,Brajalal Sinha,CheolGi Kim 한국자기학회 2012 Journal of Magnetics Vol.17 No.4

We have designed, fabricated and tested an integrated microfluidic chip with a Planar Hall Effect (PHE) sensor. The sensor was constructed by sequentially sputtering Ta/NiFe/Cu/NiFe/IrMn/Ta onto glass. The microfluidic channel was fabricated with poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) using soft lithography. Magnetic nanoparticles suspended in hexadecane were used as ferrofluid, of which the saturation magnetisation was 3.4 emu/cc. Droplets of ferrofluid were generated in a T-junction of a microfluidic channel after hydrophilic modification of the PDMS. The size and interval of the droplets were regulated by pressure on the ferrofluid channel inlet. The PHE sensor detected the flowing droplets of ferrofluid, as expected from simulation results. The shape of the signal was dependent on both the distance of the magnetic droplet from the sensor and the droplet length. The sensor was able to detect a magnetic moment of 2 × 10^?10 emu at a distance of 10 μm. This study provides an enhanced understanding of the magnetic parameters of ferrofluid in a microfluidic channel using a PHE sensor and will be used for a sample inlet module inside of integrated magnetic lab-on-a-chip systems for the analysis of biomolecules.

뇌성마비 장애인의 삶의 질에 영향을 미치는 생태체계변인분석

정일교(Jeong Ilgyo) 부경대학교 인문사회과학연구소 2017 인문사회과학연구 Vol.18 No.1

본 연구는 뇌성마비 장애인의 삶의 질에 영향을 미치는 생태체계변인을 인과적 경로분석을 통하여 분석하고, 자아존중감을 매개로 한 영향을 직접효과와 간접효과로 나누어 검증하고자 하였다. 이를 위하여 전국의 17개 광역자치단체 (서울, 경기, 대전, 충북, 강원, 전남, 대구, 부산, 경북, 경남 전남)의 장애인종합복지관과 장애인자립생활센터를 이용하는 뇌성마비 장애인을 연구대상으로 하였다. 본 연구의 조사분석은 SPSS와 AMOS 22.0을 활용하였다. 본 연구의 분석결과, 첫째, 가족지지, 여가문화, 사회적 인식은 자아존중감에 직접적인 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 둘째,자아존중감에 미치는 영향력의 크기는 여가문화, 사회적 인식, 가족지지의 순으로 나타났다. 셋째, 자아존중감은 직접적으로, 가족지지, 여가문화는 직접적으로도 간접적으로도 삶의 질에 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났으며, 사회적 인식은 간접적으로만삶의 질에 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 넷째, 삶의 질에 미치는 영향력 크기는직접효과로 볼 때는 자아존중감, 여가문화, 가족지지의 순으로 나타났다. 간접효과를포함한 총효과로 볼 때는 삶의 질에 미치는 영향력의 크기는 여가문화, 가족지지, 사회적 인식의 순으로 나타났다. This research tried to examine the affect with direct effect and indirect effect mediated with personal system and analyze the ecosystem variable which affects the quality of life in people with cerebral palsy. For this, we targeted people with cerebral palsy who utilize independent living center and rehabilitation center for the disabled in 17 metropolitan council nationwide (Seoul, Gyeonggi, Daejon, Chungbuk, Gangwon, Jeonnam, Daegu, Busan, Gyeongbuk, Gyeongnam, Jeonnam). We used SPSS and AMOS 22.0 for this research analysis. As a result of analysis, first, it was revealed that family support, leisure culture and social perception directly affect self-esteem. Second, leisure culture affects the most, and family support affects the least. Third, it was revealed that self-esteem directly affects, family support and leisure culture affects the quality of life both directly and indirectly, and social perception directly affects the quality of life. Fourth, the measure of effects for the quality of life was in order of self-esteem, leisure culture and family support. When investigated with sum effects including indirect effect, the measure of effects for the quality of life was ordered in leisure culture, family support and social perception.

남송시기 전쟁이 화폐에 끼친 영향 -단평입락(端平入洛) 시기 회자(會子)의 발행량을 중심으로-

정일교 ( Jeong Ilgyo ) 호남사학회 2022 역사학연구 Vol.85 No.-

남송시기의 재정은 赤字였고 이러한 적자재정의 主要 原因은 막대한 軍費 지출에 있었다. 즉 南宋 건립이후 金과의 계속 되는 전쟁으로 인하여 대량의 軍隊를 유지해야만 했었고 이것은 재정에 큰 부담을 주었다. 남송조정이 적자재정을 해결하고자 하였다면 우선 군비의 지출을 줄이고 세금 수입을 늘리는 것이 우선이었을 것이다. 그렇지만 이러한 정책은 남송조의 실제정황과는 符合하지 않는 것이었다. 이러한 상황에서 남송조정이 선택할 수 있었던 가장 쉬운 방법은 紙幣를 대량으로 발행하는 것이다. 남송과 金 間의 계속된 전쟁으로 막대한 군비가 필요하자 회자의 발행량도 점점 증가하여 開禧北伐 後 회자의 발행량은 1億貫을 초과하게 되었다. 비록 회자의 발행량이 증가하였다 할지라도 회자와 교환하는 金, 銀, 銅錢 등의 準備金이 충분하였다면 회자의 가치하락이 발생할 가능성은 매우 적었을 것이다. 이러한 상황 하에서 1234년(端平 元)에 남송은 蒙古와 연합하여 金을 멸망시키고 승리하였지만 몽고로부터 전쟁 승리에 대한 보상을 받지는 못하였다. 金을 멸망시킨 후에 남송조정은 三京收復을 목적으로 다시 전쟁을 준비하였다. 하그렇지만 이 전쟁의 실패로 남송과 몽고는 전면전을 시작하게 되었다. 이것은 전쟁의 승리로 얻은 것은 없다하여도 조금이나마 재정국면을 전환시킬만한 시간을 스스로 포기하였다는 것이다. 理宗 친정초기에 진행하였던 두 번의 戰役은 재정에 큰 손실을 주었다. 端平入洛 이후에 남송조정은 이전보다 많은 군비를 지출해야하는 상황에 직면하였고 결국은 회자의 발행량이 4億貫을 초과하게 되었다. 원래부터 회자가 가치가 하락하는 것은 사회경제활동에 큰 문제였고 남송의 재정에도 큰 부담을 주었다. 端平入洛 後 會子의 가치가 하락하는 추세는 이전보다 더욱 심각하였다. 남송과 몽고가 연합하여 金을 멸한 이후에 짧은 시간이었지만 宋과 蒙古는 平和 時期였다. 하지만 南宋이 三京을 수복하기 위하여 蒙古와 다시 전쟁을 일으키게 되었다. 端平入洛의 결과는 매우 비참하여 이후 남송의 재정 적자는 더욱 악화되었고 어쩔 수 없이 會子의 發行量을 늘릴 수밖에 없는 악순환이 계속되었다. 端平入洛은 宋과 蒙古의 全面 戰爭의 도화선이 되었다. 端平入洛은 晩宋時期기에 會子에 가장 큰 영향을 끼친 요인이라고 평가할 수 있다. The Southern Song dynasty had to cope with chronic financial loss. The main cause of the financial loss was huge amount of military spending. The Southern Song government had to maintain so many troops because of the perpetual war with the Jin dynasty[金] since the establishment of the Southern Song dynasty. It was a huge drain on the national finances. The Song’s government should cut down their military spending and impose new taxes[賦稅 收入] for filling in the losses. But the policies did not fit in the situation of the Song dynasty. The Song’s government adopted the easiest way, it was the issuing a large amount of paper money. Because of the perpetual war with the Jin dynasty, the Song’s government needed a huge amount of military spending and the amount of issuing Huizi for the war was constantly increased. After the campaign to retake the north in 1206[開禧北伐], the amount of issuing Huizi was exceeded one hundred million min[緡]. In spite of the increasing of the amount of issuing Huizi, if the reserve for exchange like as gold, silver, bronze and so on was enough, the value of Huizi might not have been decreasing. In the first year of Duanping[端平 元年, 1234], the Song dynasty confederated with Mongol and destroyed the Jin dynasty. However, the Song dynasty didn’t obtain any reward from Mongol. The Song dynasty again made preparations for a war to retake the three major cities[三京收復]. The campaign was failed and it led to the all-out war between the Song dynasty and Mongol. The Song’s government lost the opportunity to recover the national finances. In the early stage of military expedition[親政] of Emperor Lizong[理宗], the two military campaigns imposed a heavy burden on the national finances. After the Mongol invasion, the Song government had to expend more military spending than before. Finally, the amount of issuing Huizi was exceeded four hundred million min. The depreciation of Huizi caused lots of socio-economic problems, it caused a burden on the national finances. And the fall in the value of Huizi became more serious than before. After the collapse of the Jin dynasty, the Song dynasty and Mongol enjoyed a small period of peace and rest. But the Song dynasty again made the war with Mongol to retake the three major cities. As the result of the Mongol Invasion, the vicious circle that the growing the fiscal deficits of the Song dynasty led to the expansion of the amount of issuing Huizi was reiterated. The Mongol invasion became a trigger to bring the all-out war between the Song dynasty and Mongol. Therefore, the Mongol invasion was the largest factor to affect Huizi in the late of the Song dynasty[晩宋時期].

宋代 正祀와 淫祀에 관한 認識 : 朝廷・官員・士人의 淫祀觀을 중심으로

정일교(Jeong, Ilgyo) 순천향대학교 인문학연구소 2021 순천향 인문과학논총 Vol.40 No.4

송대는 민간 神祠信仰은 매우 성행하였고 그 합법성 문제 또한 매우 중시 되었다. 민간 신사신앙이 官方의 승인을 얻는 주요과정을 보면 祀典에 등록하는 것과 封祀를 신청하는 것이었다. 그리고 사전을 위주로 점차적으로 賜額과 封額을 받는 것으로 바뀌었다. 이러한 변화와 지역사회의 역량 그리고 그 신앙의 근원은 큰 연관성을 갖고 있었고 이들 사이에는 상호 인과관계가 존재하였다. 동시에 일부 민간 사신신앙은 朝廷・官員・士人 그리고 理學家들에게 “淫祀”라하여 배척 당하였다. 조정・관원 그리고 사인의 음사에 대한 비판과 공격은 주로 음사가 민간의 생명안전・지방치안・경제이익・윤리도덕 그리고 貌像儀式이 비도덕적이었다는 것이었고 神靈의 출신 등에 관한 것이었다. 그리고 의식행위가 합법적이지 않은 것에도 관심을 가졌다. 관원과 사인이 사신신앙을 판단하는 기준에 있어서 합법적인 경우라도 조정의 제도와 유가경전과 같은 기준에 부합하는지가 중요한 요소로 작용하였다. 理學家가 운용한 理・氣・誠 등의 관념은 전통 유교경전을 다시 해석하는 것이었고 매우 엄격한 음사 관념을 제시하였다. 어떠한 경우에는 朝廷에서 封賜를 받은 수많은 신령 또한 합법적이지 않은 음사에 속하였고 이학가들은 傳統祀典을 회복하는 것이 최후의 이상이라고 보았다. 송인이 인식하고 있던 正과 淫의 대립된 이분법적 관념은 부당한 것이었고 정사와 음사 사이에 사신에 존재한다는 것을 인정하고 있었다. 송대의 지방 관원은 소재지의 신사에 대하여 엄격한 기준을 적용하고 있지는 않았다. 일반적인 상황은 官과 民이 雨旱祈禱에 있어서 신사가 사전에 등록되었는지 아닌지는 큰 의미가 없었다. 송대에는 법률로 정사와 음사를 명확하게 나눌 수 있는 규정은 없었을 것이지만, 개인은 정사와 음사에 관한 명확한 인식을 갖고 있었을 것이다. 그렇지만 정사와 음사에 경계에 있어서 여전히 모호성이 존재하고 있었다. 송대 조정・관원 그리고 사인은 민간 사신시상에 대한 인식에 있어서 다양한 특수성을 갖고 있었을 것이다. 그리고 이러한 인식이 송대 음사를 배격하였던 주요 원인이 되었을 것이다. The ritual shrine[神祠] worship was very popular in the era of the Song Dynasty. But the issue of its legality was very important and sensitive thing. There were the main two ways that a private ritual shrine worship get official recognition from the government. First thing was putting the shrine on the Dynasty’s official shrine list[祀典]. And another way was applying for a specific ritual[封祀]. Mainly with the Dynasty’s official shrine list, it was gradually turned into the way receiving the title board[賜額] and certain supports[封額]. There were a close interrelationship and a cause-and-effect relationship among this change, the capability of community and the origin of folk religion. On the other hand, some private ritual shrine worships were rejected by the government, officials[官員], scholars[士人] and Neo-Confucianism Confucians[理學家] because they suspected that those ritual shrines held improper ritual. They claimed that those shrines became a menace to safety of residents, local economy and security, and social ethics. They especially pointed out that the way of those shrines ritual was unethical and illegal. They also took issue with the origins of those shrines’ divine spirits. Even if it was legal, the officials and scholars judged a ritual shrine whether to be a proper ritual or to be a improper ritual in accordance with the government’s policy and Confucian scriptures. However, actually, the most important criterion was the government’s policy. Neo-Confucianism[理學] reinterpreted their Confucian scriptures focusing on Li-Qi theory[理氣論], and the Confucians established a strict criterion about whether to be a proper ritual or to be a improper ritual. In some cases, lots of private ritual shrines didn’t fit in the strict criterion, even though they had gotten certain supports from the government. Neo-Confucianism Confucians wanted to recover the Dynasty’s official shrine list aboriginally. The Song people thought their dichotomous view was incorrect, and admitted that the ritual shrines were between to be proper and to be improper. The local officials didn t apply strict criteria to the ritual shrines. Commonly it wasn t important thing that a shrine was on the list or not. In the Song Dynasty, there were not any law to divide specifically whether a ritual shrine was to be proper or not to be proper. But there were probably a strict criterion for individual to ritual shrines. The border between to be proper or not to be proper was uncertain. It had lots of perception gap and considerable complex interrelation about ritual shrines among the government, officials, and scholars. They became the main causes to reject the improper ritual.

北宋時期 四川地域 鐵錢의 가치 변화

정일교(Jeong, Ilgyo) 동양사학회 2018 東洋史學硏究 Vol.144 No.-

In Sichuan, people already used Iron coin since Eastern Han Dynasty. This region became a special one where use iron coin only for currency after North Song Dynasty had conquered Later Shu(後蜀). However, the best important cause of using iron coin in Sichuan was in a policy of commerce and industry in Song period. Early in Song Dynasty, the central government fell short of finance because of wars of unification. For supplement this shortages, the government implemented policy of commerce and industry that gather local goods to central government. In the progress of this policy, Sichuan that comparatively developed economy damaged much more. In other words, because of tax payment and a policy that prohibit copper coins flow to Sichuan, a lot of iron coins were send to Kaifeng(開封), and Sichuan became an only region using iron coins. Although the government didn’t proclaim a law that designate Sichuan to use iron coin, but because of outflow of many copper coins and prohibition of inflow, the amount of copper coins in circulation reduced rapidly. In this situation, Song Dynasty minted a kind of iron coin, “景德大鐵錢” in 1005, but the coins were not in circulation by proper value. Finally the government minted a new iron coin, “祥符大鐵錢” which weight was a half of “景德大鐵錢”. The biggest problem when only using iron coins was uncomfortable economic life caused by reducing value of iron coin. This phenomenon is called “monetary value is low, the price become expensive(錢輕物重)”, this means that the value of coins reduced and inflation appeared. The essential cause of difference between Sichuan and other regions was the financial crunch of Song Dynasty. for this reason, the amount of minting iron coins increased exponentially and the value of iron coins depreciated. This phenomenon affected the people, people had to bear this kind of price fluctuation.

南宋 開禧年間 北伐戰役과 物價變動의 關係

정일교(Jeong ilgyo) 한국외국어대학교 역사문화연구소 2021 역사문화연구 Vol.80 No.-

南宋은 중원지역을 金에게 빼앗기고 金과의 전쟁 중에 건국되었고 북송과 비교하여 영토가 줄어들게 되면서 재정 수입이 대폭 감소하게 되었다. 또한 남송 초에 金과의 전쟁으로 군비의 지출이 증가하였다. 1141년(紹興 11) 남송과 金이 紹興和議를 체결하고 1163년(隆興 元)까지는 비교적 평화의 시기였다. 남송 초와 비교하여 이시기의 물가는 비교적 안정적이었다. 그렇지만 남송 조정에서 隆興北伐과 開禧北伐을 단행하면서 남송의 물가가 상승하였다. 이와 함께 두 번의 북벌을 진행하는 과정에서 막대한 군비 지출을 감당하기 위해 지폐를 남발하면서 물가에 악영향을 끼쳤다. 전쟁 준비와 대량의 상비군 유지를 위한 부족한 국가 재정을 지폐로 메우고자 하였고, 결국 물가의 상승으로 이어졌다. 남송이 건국된 이후에 金과 여러 차례 전쟁이 있었다. 이 가운데 開禧北伐 전, 후 시기의 물가 변동 상황을 분석하여 전쟁이 물가에 끼친 영향에 대하여 살펴보고자 한다. 대규모 전역은 진행과정이 복잡하고 수년간의 기간 동안 준비과정을 거치면서 물가에 큰 영향을 끼치는 경우가 대부분이고 이는 물가의 변동 폭이 비정상적을 나타나는 경우도 있다. 이로 인해 전쟁과 물가 변동 사이의 상관관계를 파악하는데 있어서 한계가 있다고 생각되어 진다. 본 논문은 비교적 작은 규모와 시기가 비교적 짧았던 전역, 즉 開禧北伐 시기의 물가 변동을 통해 전역과 물가의 상관관계에 대하여 비교적 자세히 파악해 보고한다. The Southern Song dynasty was established after the losing the north territory during the war with the Jin[金] dynasty. Compared with the Song dynasty, the financial income of country was sharply decreased as the reduce the territory. And the military expenditure was increased in the early years of the Southern Song dynasty because of the war with the Jin dynasty. In 1141[Shaoxing(紹興) 11], the Southern Song dynasty concluded the treaty of Shaoxing[紹興和議] with the Jin dynasty and enjoyed the time of peace until 1163[Longxing((隆興) the first year]. In those days, the price level was kept more stable against the early years of the Southern Song dynasty. But the government of the Southern Song dynasty carried out the invasion of the Jin in the era of Longxing[隆興北伐] and the Invasion of the Jin in the era of Kaixi[開禧北伐]. Therefore, the price level of the Southern Song was risen. Also, the government had overissued the paper money for the the huge military expenditure conducting the two invasions. It had a bad effect on the price level. The government tried to improve the financial loss for the war preparation and maintaining the standing army through issuing paper money. It caused inflation. Since the nation’s birth, the Southern Song dynasty had fought several war with the Jin. Among them, I try to examine on the situation of the Price Fluctuation during the moment before and after the Invasion of the Jin in the era of Kaixi[開禧北伐], and study on the effect on the price level by the war. The most of big campaigns have affected on price level, because they need very complex processes and the preparations for long terms. And they sometimes show us the abnormal range of fluctuation. So they aren’t fit to investigate the interrelation between Price Fluctuation and war. Thus, this paper focus on the the Invasion of the Jin in the era of Kaixi[開禧北伐], that was conducted on relatively short term and a relatively small scale, and try to understand the interrelation between Price Fluctuation and war.

南宋時期 財政과 軍費 比重 硏究

鄭壹敎(Jeong, Ilgyo) 동양사학회 2016 東洋史學硏究 Vol.136 No.-

The Song dynasty had spent more than 60% percent of the financial affairs on the military expenses. It was applied for whole period of the Song dynasty as well as the Southern Song dynasty. Most of the military expenses in the Song dynasty went to operations and maintenance costs. Because the Song dynasty instituted a volunteer military system. It means that the nature of the military turned into the occupation soldiers. And the Song dynasty had to support to the soldiers as well as the soldier’s families. Besides, the Song’s military expenses was included the soldier’s pay, the production of arms, the purchasing of logistics materials, etc. The Song dynasty purchased the military goods in the market. The military expenses was the largest part of the government expenditure in the Song dynasty. It was said that the Song’s military expenses accounted for 60 percent to 90 percent of the government expenditure. Although not accurate, the purpose of this study is trying to assess how did the Song dynasty spent annually on military disbursement. It may be a mistake of hasty generalization calculating the total cost of military in the Song dynasty from the military expenditure of the some regions. And it is possible to make an error of calculating the total price of the logistics goods purchased. Because the price was vary on the area. But to conclude, I believe that finding in this study will have the roughly understanding of the military expenditure in the Song dynasty, especially in the Southern Song dynasty.

北宋時期 河東地域 錢法과 鐵錢

정일교(Jeong, Ilgyo) 순천향대학교 인문학연구소 2020 순천향 인문과학논총 Vol.39 No.4

북송 시기 동전을 중심 한 화폐 체제가 확립되었던 반면 사천, 섬서, 하동 지역은 동전과 철전을 병행하기도 하였고 철전만을 사용하기도 하였다. 四川・陝西・河東지역은 북송 시기에 특수 화폐 지역으로 볼 수 있을 것이다. 사천지역이 철전 전용지역으로 결정되는 데 있어서 정치적인 요소와 경제적인 요소가 큰 작용을 하였다. 섬서 지역은 1041년(경력 원)에 철전 사용지역으로 확정이 되었다. 섬서 지역의 철전사용은 西夏와의 전쟁의 영향을 받았던 것으로 보인다. 하동 지역은 섬서 지역과 같은 경우로 요와 서하의 전쟁의 영향으로 철전을 사용하게 되었고 다른 지역과는 다르게 처음부터 대전을 주로 사용하였다. 하동 지역은 사천과 섬서 지역과는 다르게 遼・西夏와 국경을 맞대고 있었다. 송대 철전 사용지역은 주로 北狄과 국경을 맞대고 있던 지역으로 이는 조정에서 동전이 북방지역으로의 유출을 막고자 하였던 이유도 있었다. 이를 위해 북방의 적들과 국경을 맞대고 있던 지역은 주로 철전을 사용하였다. 하동 지역에서의 철전 사용은 사천과 섬서 지역에 비해 다소 늦은 시기에 시작되었다. 하동 지역에서의 철전 사용을 보면 慶曆年間(1041~1048)부터 시작하였고, 철전 사용 초기에는 섬서 지역의 군비를 충당하기 위한 목적이었다. 또한, 사천과 섬서지역과는 다르게 小平錢이 아닌 대전을 주조하였다. 이미 사천 지역에서는 진종 시기부터 대철전을 주조하여 유통하고 있었기 때문에 하동 지역에서도 대철전을 주조하였다. 하동 지역에서 처음부터 대철전을 주조하게 되면서 대철전 사용 이전에 사용되었던 화폐와의 가치 평가에서 상당한 문제점이 발생하였고 이 과정에서 백성들이 조정에 항의하는 경우도 종종 발생하였다. 하동 지역에서 대철전을 사용하게 되면서 여러 문제들이 발생하였지만 결국 금의 북송 침입으로 하동 지역이 금의 영토에 포함되면서 이러한 문제를 해결하지 못하는 결말을 맞게 되었다. In the Northern Song Dynasty, most of China had the copper coin standard monetary system. But some regions of China like Shisen[四川], Shaanxi[陝西], and Hedong[河東] used both cooper coin and iron coin, or only used iron coin. Those regions were some special districts for currency. There were some important political and economic factors that Shisen became a exclusive using iron coin area. Shaanxi became the area using iron coin in 1041[Qingli(慶曆) 1]. It was the result that affected by the war between the Song Dynasty and Western Xia[西夏]. Hedong was also similar situation. Hedong was affected by the war between Western Xia and the Liao Dynasty[大遼], and became the area to using iron coin. Unlike other regions, Hedong used great iron coin since the first time. The region of Hedong had bordered on Western Xia and the Liao Dynasty, unlike Shisen and Shaanxi. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the areas using iron coin were usually the regions bordered on northern barbarian. Because the government of the Song Dynasty tried to prevent the leaks of copper coin into northen-east area of China. So, the regions that boarded on barbarian had used iron coin usually. The start using iron coin in Hedong was later than the regions of Shisen and Shaanxi. The using iron coin of Hedong was started in the era of Qingli[慶曆年間(1041~1048)]. When the using iron coin first started, it aimed to afford the military spending of Shaanxi. Also, Unlike Shisen and Shaanxi, since the first time, Hedong used great iron coin, not small coin. Because Shisen had minted great iron coin and used it since the reign of Emperor Zhenzong[眞宗]. So Hedong also became to mint great iron coin and used it. But the using great iron coin caused some severe problems of the valuation between old coin and new coin. And in this process, the people sometimes used to protest the government. There were lots of problems that happened to using great iron coin. But because of the invasion of the Jin dynasty [大金], Hedong became the territory of the Jin dynasty. Eventually, those problems were remained unresolved.

북송시기(北宋時期) 동전감(銅錢監)의 규모(規模)와 인적구성(人的構成)에 관한 연구

정일교 ( Jeong Ilgyo ) 호남사학회(구 전남사학회) 2020 역사학연구 Vol.79 No.-

송대 주전감은 대부분 주전감은 州에 소속되어 있었다. 주전감에서 주조하는 금속화폐는 주로 銅錢과 鐵錢이었지만, 그 구분이 명확하지 않은 경우도 상당수 존재하였다. 주전감의 설치 지역도 漢代에는 주로 銅鑛이 존재하는 산악 지역에 주전감을 설치하였던 반면 송대에는 교통이 원활한 지역에 주로 주전감을 설치하였다. 이는 동전을 생산하는데 주재료인 銅뿐만 아니라 기타 원료의 원활한 공급을 위했던 것으로 보인다. 주전감의 규모는 동전을 생산하는 인원이 규모가 큰 경우에는 수천 명에 이르는 예도 있었다. 그리고 보통 3인의 관원이 전감을 관리하였다. 규모가 큰 전감은 文武 관원이 각각 1명 혹은 3명씩 있었고 작은 경우에는 1명 혹은 지방관이 겸직하는 경우도 있었던 것으로 보인다. 전감의 노동자 구성을 보면 송대는 당대와는 조금 다른 경향을 보인다. 당대 전감에서 주전에 종사하는 노동자들의 구성을 보면 대부분이 임시로 징발되어온 番匠과 役人이었다. 그렇지만 송대 전감의 노동자들을 보면 우선 기술을 가진 工匠, 일반 노동자, 군인 그리고 죄인의 4종류의 노동자들이 전감에서 주전사업에 종사를 하였다. 이들 중에 기술이 없는 자도 시간이 지나 기술을 습득하면 工匠이 될 수 있었고, 군인은 대부분이 죄를 짓고 전감에 배정된 “配軍”이었다. 이는 동전을 주조하는 일이 고된 노동이었다는 것을 보여주고 있다. 북송시기에는 이들 노동자들에 대한 대우가 비교적 좋은 편이었고 부역자들은 대부분이 공장과 일반 노동자들이었다. 그렇지만 남송시기에는 이들에 대한 대우가 북송과 비교하여 안 좋아졌으며 부역자들 또한 대부분인 군병과 죄인이었다. 송대 전감은 관원과 다양한 부류의 인원으로 구성이 되어있었고 그 규모도 매우 다양하였다. 송대 특히 북송시기의 금속화폐의 유통에 있어서 매우 중요한 역할을 하였다. Most of the mint bureaus of the Song dynasty were affiliated to provinces[州]. For the most part of the coin, that was casting by the mint bureau, were copper and iron coins. However, there were also the other coins that the classification was not clear. In the era of the Han(漢) dynasty, the mint bureaus were established around mountainous area that had a copper mine. On the contrary, the mint bureaus of the Song dynasty were set up on the transportation hubs. That was for the smooth supply of the other materials as well as copper. In some cases, a mint bureau had thousands workers who cast coins in copper and iron. Generally, there were 3 government officials, who supervised the bureau. There were each 1 to 3 literary and military officials in the large mint bureau. Whereas, in the small mint bureau, there was 1 official or 1 local official. The local official both worked as a local official and as the administrator of the mint. Also, it is different that the composition of the mint bureau’s workers between the era of the Tang(唐) dynasty and the Song dynasty. In the era of the Tang dynasty, the workers of the mint bureau were consist of temporary craftsman and citizens who carries out the duty to their country. On the contrary, in the era of the Song dynasty, they consisted of master craftsmen, general laborers, soldiers, and prisoners. Among them, the soldiers was who had committed a crime. And general laborer who learned skills could become the craftsman. It shows that the coin casting was very hard. In the era of the Northern Song dynasty, the workers consisted of craftsmen and laborers, and they had been treated well. However, in the Southern Song dynasty, they became poorly paid, and most of them consisted of soldiers and prisoners. The mint bureau was consisted of officer and many different kinds of workers, the size was also various. The mint bureau played a key role in metal currency circulation in the Song dynasty, especially in the era of the Northern Song Dynasty.