The Adoption of Kṣitigarbha and the Ten Kings of Hell in Shamanic Death Rituals in Korea

DOMINIK RUTANA 계명대학교 한국학연구원 2021 Acta Koreana Vol.24 No.1

By late Chosŏn times, the ideas of hell, punishment, and possible ways of salvation expressed in the Kṣitigarbha and the Ten Kings of Hell belief (chijang siwang sinang 地藏十王信仰) had not only deeply penetrated popular consciousness, but also gained so much popularity that they influenced other worldviews, including shamanism. Accordingly, Korean shamans started to adopt motifs derived from the belief into their mythology and ritual, something which is still visible today. The way Korean shamans adopted and applied motifs derived from the belief in Kṣitigarbha and the Ten Kings of Hell to death rituals like chinogi kut 진오기굿or ssikkim kut 씻김굿 varies from ritual to ritual but they serve as a medium that connects the present (isŭng 이승) and the otherworld (chŏsŭng 저승). Korean shamans use this medium, along with other symbols and deities such as Princess Pari, not only to explain and secure the ontological transformation of the deceased from worldly to otherworldly beings during the liminal process of the ritual, but also to meet the needs of their clients and make the ritual more persuasive. This amalgamation of Buddhist and shamanistic elements, a kind of bricolage, should be considered a creation of the specific mythical thought pattern of Korean shamans.

한국 죽음준비 의례에 대한 검토 : 봉은사 생전예수재를 중심으로

RUTANA Dominik 중동유럽한국학회 2020 CEESOK Journal of Korean Studies Vol.1 No.1

This study focus on one of the Buddhist death rituals, Saengjeŏnyesuje, which can be described and treated as a part of so called “death preparation culture” in Korea. It is believed that Saengjeŏnyesuje has been introduced to Korea from China during the Koryŏ dynasty. However, according to historical records, the ritual gained popularity during the Chosŏn dynasty, and was broadly performed among common people, especially in the latter part of Chosŏn. Nowadays, Yesuje is still being performed in many Korean temples. In this paper I mostly focus on Yesuje from Bongŭn Temple in Sŏul. An unique aspect of Saengjeŏnyesuje as death ritual is that individual can perform it while being alive and through this prepare to owns death. It is believed that by performing Yesuje one can not only wash all of the sins committed during lifetime, but also gain merits which will allow to avoid punishment after death. In other words, by performing Yesuje individual gain a new identity which is being maintained even after the ritual is completed and person already returned to daily existence. Moreover, spiritual practice and a confrontation with some transcendental power during the ritual, consolidate the belief that after death ones soul will be reborn in Western Paradise. Therefore, it can be said that Yesuje helps not only to prepare for death, but also overcome it at psychological level.

승려와 수도사설화의 비교 연구

루타나도미닉(Rutana, Dominik) 대구가톨릭대학교 다문화연구소 2017 다문화와 인간 Vol.6 No.2

본 연구의 목적은 한국 승려설화와 폴란드 수도사설화의 비교를 통해 동서양의 종교문화에 관한 이해의 지평을 확대하고자 하는 것이다. 승려설화는 불교를 배경으로, 수도사 설화는 가톨릭을 배경으로 각각 생겨났다. 종교는 당대의 사회적・윤리적 의식세계를 대변하나 종교설화는 결코 그 종교가 갖는 교리를 바탕으로 이야기되는 것이 아니다. 설화의 내용은 각 종교가 그 시대의 민중에게 어떤 모습으로 비춰졌느냐 하는 것이다. 따라서 이들을 유형화하고 비교 분석하는 일은 그 시대의 종교와 사회의 관계를 밝히는 일이기도 하다. 우리는 설화를 통해 승려와 수도사들의 모습을 긍정적인 모습과 부정적인 모습으로 분류할 수 있다. 그들이 가진 신이한 능력과 구제의 행위를 묘사한 이야기를 통해 긍정적인 모습을, 그들의 타락한 행위와 어리석음을 희화화한 이야기를 통해 부정적인 모습으로 각각 유형화 할 수 있다. 긍정적인 설화들은 정의를 지향하고자 하는 인간의 염원이 투사된 이야기들이고, 부정적인 설화들은 인간이 가진 도덕적 가치가 어디까지 유지될 수 있는지에 대한 윤리적 한계의 투사라고 할 수 있다. 이를 두 설화의 유사성이라고 한다면, 지리적・문화적 상이성은 설화의 내용 형성에 별다른 영향을 끼치지 않는 셈이다. 설화 속의 승려와 수도사의 모습은 주로 민중들의 종교에 대한 의식과 초월적인 것에 대한 기대를 바탕으로 형성되었기 때문이다. 다만, 설화의 모티프가 다양하게 나타나도록 하는 변인은 폴란드 가톨릭의 오랜 유일신교적 전통 혹은 종교적 절대주의, 한국 불교의 오랜 포용주의적 전통 혹은 다종교 공존을 지향하는 관용주의로 말미암은 것이라고 할 수 있다. The purpose of this study is to compare Korean monk and Polish friar narratives and foster a deeper understanding of Eastern and Western religious culture by means of this comparison. Monk narratives were formed against a background of Buddhism, while friar narratives were formed against a background of Catholicism. Religion reflects the system of social and ethical consciousness of each era. However, religious narratives are not composed against a background of the doctrine of each religion. The content of the narratives, regardless of whether it is positive or negative, is based on the way the religion is perceived by the masses in each historical period. Therefore, by a typological process and a comparative analysis of these narratives, the correlation between religion and society in each historical period may be clearly revealed. Throughout these narratives, the image of the monk and friar can be classified as being either positive or negative. Narratives in which monks or friars are depicted as people who possess mysterious divine powers and stories which depict their acts of helping others demonstrate their positive aspects, while stories which show their depravation and caricatures in which their stupidity is depicted demonstrate their negative aspects. Ultimately, the positive narratives are stories tracing human desires, while the negative narratives trace the ethical limits of how long a human being can preserve his moral values. If it can be said that these two points are similar for both Korean and Polish narratives, consideration must be made that geographical and cultural features have little impact on the content of the narratives. It is because of the image of monks and friars, whether positive or negative, is based on the people"s expectations towards religion, especially on people"s faith in the efficacy of religious miracles. It can only be said that the various differences in the narrative motifs are caused by variable origins - Polish Catholicism"s long monotheistic tradition or religious absolutism, and Korean Buddhism"s long tradition of embracing other religions or orientation towards multi-religious coexistence and tolerance.

한국 불교와 대순진리회 죽음관 비교연구 : 윤회와 명부ㆍ시왕 관념을 중심으로

도미닉 루타나(Dominik Rutana) 대진대학교 대순사상학술원 2022 대순사상논총 Vol.40 No.-

본 연구는 한국 불교와 대순진리회의 죽음관을 비교하는 것을 목적으로 삼는다. 한국 불교와 대순진리회는 죽음관을 설명하는 데 있어서 윤회(輪廻), 명부(冥府), 시왕(十王) 등의 다양한 개념들을 공동으로 사용한다. 그러나 불교와 대순진리회에서 이 개념들은 그 내용과 범주가 다를 뿐만 아니라, 각각의 교리체계 속에서 작동하는 방식과 중요성에서도 차이가 있다. 즉 불교와 대순진리회의 윤회 개념은 많은 비슷한 점들이 발견되기도 하지만 윤회의 기간, 또는 윤회 과정에 있어서 타력(他力)의 중요성과 관련된 차이점을 지적할 수 있다. 명부 관념의 경우는 비슷한 점들보다 차이점들이 우세를 차지하고 있다. 왜냐하면 대순사상에서는 불교의 명부설에서 나타난 시왕에 의해 이루어지는 심판 교설도 있기는 하지만, 대순진리회 교리체계 속에서 훨씬 중요한 위치를 차지하고 있는 소위 ‘명부공사’라는 또 하나의 새로운 교설도 있기 때문이다. 따라서 각각 전통에서 나타나는 윤회와 명부ㆍ시왕 관념들은 같은 개념과 범주를 갖는 것으로 파악할 수 없으며, 재정의할 필요가 있다. 다시 말하자면 불교의 윤회, 불교의 명부나 시왕과는 구분되도록 하여, ‘대순진리회 윤회’, ‘대순진리회 명부ㆍ시왕’과 같은 새로운 개념으로 독립적인 사상 체계 맥락에서 재정의해야 하며, 더 넓은 종교 이론에 포함시켜야 한다. The purpose of this study is to compare death the Korean Buddhist understanding of death with that of Daesoon Jinrihoe. Various concepts, including reincarnation (輪廻), myeongbu (冥府, ‘the postmortem offices’ or ‘afterworld’) and the Ten Kings (十王) of the afterworld are used to explain views on death in both religions. However, these concepts differ not only in their content and categorization, but also in terms of the meaning they occupy within the doctrines of each religion. In other words, although many similarities can be found between Buddhism and Daesoon Jinrihoe’s concept of reincarnation, at the same time, differences between them can also be pointed out. The differences include the period of time between one’s death and reincarnation and also the importance of reliance upon other people or divine powers during the reincarnation process. With regard to ideas involving myŏngbu, there are far more differences than similarities. Both Buddhism and Daesoon Jinrihoe shares a similar notion of an afterlife judgment presided over by the Ten Kings. However, many differences can be found when it comes to Daesoon Jinrihoe other view of myŏngbu, known as ‘myeongbu gongsa (the Reordering Works of Myeongbu).’ These works are considered to be of great doctrinal importance in Daesoon Jinrihoe. Therefore, the concepts of reincarnation and myeongbu that appear in both traditions should not be considered identical and need to be redefined accordingly in comparative contexts. In other words, the concepts of reincarnation, myeongbu, and the Ten Kings as they appear in the Daesoon Thought should first be differentiated from their counterparts found in Buddhism and then be redefined in the context of the new and independent system of thought in which they exist. These concepts should then be applied to broader theoretical discourse on religion.