第二次大戰後 日本における民主主義制度の受容 : 府縣制度改革の場合 Conflict and Compatibility

天川晃 서강대학교 동아연구소 1988 東亞 硏究 Vol.- No.15

Since the early Meiji period, the Japanese local government system has teen constructed as a two-layer system comprised with prefectures(fuken) and municipalities (shi, cho, son) . All local government served two function, Local governments, while directly responsible for the affairs of local communities, were also expected to perform national administrative functions within their areas. Japanese local governments were interfused with the central government in the sense that they worked for the central government as well. This interfused type of local government is quite different from the American type of local government, where functions of government are clearly separated between federal, state and local governments. Distinctions between prefectures and municipalties were made by their major functions. Prefectures were primarily constructed as a comprehensive local branch of the national administration, while being allowed to perform some autonomous functions for their communities. Governors of the prefectures were national officials appointed by the Home Minister. Municipalities, on the other hand, were constructed as independent local entities, while performing national administrative functions delegated to them. Mayors were selected by the local assemblies which were elected by the community. As a local government, municipalities were "complete" total entities and prefectures were "incomplete. "As a national administrative branch, prefectures were "complete" and municipalities were "incomplete. "All local governments were under the general control of the Home Minister, Just as the local governments had dual functions, so did the Home Ministry. While the Home Minister was the supervisor of local governments in executing national functions, he was also the protector of local governments, interests at the Cabinet's decision making level. The Home Minister, as a coordinator of domestic policies, acted as ago-between for the central and local governments. In this essay the local administrative structure with the Home Ministry at the central government Bevel and prefectures at the local level is named as H-P(Home Ministry-Prefectures) model. The Meiji local government system was established on this H-P model. After the introduction of the local government system in 1890, both municipal and prefecture governments demanded an expansion of their autonomous powers and the Home Ministry responded to these demands as long as it does not endanger the H-P model. The prefectural system became similar to that of municipalities, however, its basic character as a national administrative branch was not changed. After the 1930's, the main theme of local government reform was not to "strengthen local government" but instead to limit their autonomous powers. A drastic reform plan for the national administrative system was proposed to respond to wartime administrative needs. Different from the H·p model, the plan proposed a strong Cabinet at the central level and with regional governments at local level. Since prefectures were too small in size to force wartime planning and control, prefectures were to be replaced by regional governments as being a national administrative branch, In the 1940's government reorganizations along this plan, hereafter named as C-R (Cabinet-Regional Governments) model, were partly realized with a support of the military. Just before the end of the war, the problem of prefectures was whether they should be replaced by regional governments, and their reorganizations "complete" local entities was not on the agenda of the Home Ministry. Guided by the American occupation policy to strengthen democracy in Japan, the Government Section (GS) of SCAP in 1946, initiated drastic institutional reforms, Including constitutional reforms, along democratic lines. To make the Japanese political system more democratic, GS took up decentralization as an important measure. The GS included a chapter on "Local Government" in its model constitution and demanded the direct popular election of chiefs of local governments. The GS demanded that the Home Ministry reform local government laws to accord to the spirit of the new constitution. New Local Autonomy Laws (LAL) were enacted and carried into effect in May 1947. The LAL designated prefectures as "ordinary public entities" and also ended the Home Ministry's power to control local governments because of the strong pressure from the GS. After the enactment of the LAL, the GS further demanded a reorganization of the Home Ministry, which finally led to the dissolution of the ministry at the end of 1947. In the end of these reforms, the traditional H-P model was partly destroyed. Occupation-led reforms were not done without serious conflicts with Japanese Government which stuck to traditional Japanese practices. The Home Ministry was not prepared to make prefectures into "complete" autonomous entities. Reform plans proposed, by the ministry, including the new LAL, were drafted based on the H-P model. Different conceptions of "democracy" and "local autonomy" was the major source of conflicts between Occupation authorities and the Japanese Government. After the Occupation was over in 1952, the Japanese government began to rectify the excesses of Occupation-led reforms in order to make readjustments based on Japanese traditions. After these readjustments, however, the basic democratic framework of the political system was left intact. The new prefecture system started with some problems. Its relation-ship with municipalities was not clearly defined in the LAL. As a "complete" local entity, a prefectures became an "incomplete" local administrative branch, since its size was not reorganized into larger one. Thus the new prefecture system became the focal point of the readjustment process which began in early 1950's. There were three models for this readjustment process ; first, the Shoup Report recommended in 1949 a transformation of the interfused local government system into a separated one ; second, the new H-P model under the LAL : third, the new C-R model to abolish prefectures. The first model was discarded after being used to make municipalities stronger. The third model was rejected because of its association with wartime militarism. Rejecting drastic readjustments proposed in models first and three, the second model became part of the readjustment process. The revised H-P model was composed of the Local Autonomy Agency at the central level and new prefectures at local level. Compared with the original H-P model, this new model links between the central and local governments weaker and assures stronger local government. With these new changes, however, the traditional interfused structure was preserved. The Japanese people accepted democratic ideas to replace wartime militarism. This was the reason why the new C-R model was rejected. Thus, drastic prefectural reforms in terms of size has not been made. Postwar prefectures are not supported by the LAL alone. They were supported by the new constitution and also by new recruits for the new prefectural system. Japanese experiences under the Meiji Constitution also support the new prefectures. To "strengthen local entity" was a major trend by the1930s. The prewar H-P model allowed these trends to some extent. Although the basic relationship between the central government and local governments, the interfused type of local government system is familiar to the Japanese people. Under the more democratic constitution, they selected to continue this model even it leaves many problems to cope with.

Inductorless 8.9 mW 25 Gb/s 1:4 DEMUX and 4 mW 13 Gb/s 4:1 MUX in 90 nm CMOS

Sekiguchi, Takayuki,Amakawa, Shuhei,Ishihara, Noboru,Masu, Kazuya The Institute of Electronics and Information Engin 2010 Journal of semiconductor technology and science Vol.10 No.3

A low-power inductorless 1:4 DEMUX and a 4:1 MUX for a 90 nm CMOS are presented. The DEMUX can be operated at a speed of 25 Gb/s with the power supply voltage of 1.05 V, and the power consumption is 8.9 mW. The area of the DEMUX core is $29\;{\times}\;40\;{\mu}m^2$. The operation speed of the 4:1 MUX is 13 Gb/s at a power supply voltage of 1.2 V, and the power consumption is 4 mW. The area of the MUX core is $30\;{\times}\;18\;{\mu}m^2$. The MUX/DEMUX mainly consists of differential pseudo-NMOS. In these MUX/DEMUX circuits, logic swing is nearly rail-to-rail, and a low $V_{dd}$. The component circuit is more scalable than a CML circuit, which is commonly used in a high-performance MUX/DEMUX. These MUX/DEMUX circuits are compatible with conventional CMOS logic circuit, and it can be directly connected to CMOS logic gates without logic level conversion. Furthermore, the circuits are useful for core-to-core interconnection in the system LSI or chip-to-chip communication within a multi-chip module, because of its low power, small footprint, and reasonable operation speed.

Inductorless 8.9 ㎽ 25 Gb/s 1:4 DEMUX and 4 ㎽ 13 Gb/s 4:1 MUX in 90 ㎚ CMOS

Takayuki Sekiguchi,Shuhei Amakawa,Noboru Ishihara,Kazuya Masu 대한전자공학회 2010 Journal of semiconductor technology and science Vol.10 No.3

A low-power inductorless 1:4 DEMUX and a 4:1 MUX for a 90 nm CMOS are presented. The DEMUX can be operated at a speed of 25 Gb/s with the power supply voltage of 1.05 V, and the power consumption is 8.9 ㎽. The area of the DEMUX core is 29 × 40 ㎛². The operation speed of the 4:1 MUX is 13 Gb/s at a power supply voltage of 1.2 V, and the power consumption is 4 ㎽. The area of the MUX core is 30 × 18 ㎛². The MUX/DEMUX mainly consists of differential pseudo-NMOS. In these MUX/DEMUX circuits, logic swing is nearly rail-torail, and a low Vdd. The component circuit is more scalable than a CML circuit, which is commonly used in a high-performance MUX/DEMUX. These MUX/DEMUX circuits are compatible with conventional CMOS logic circuit, and it can be directly connected to CMOS logic gates without logic level conversion. Furthermore, the circuits are useful for core-to-core interconnection in the system LSI or chip-to-chip communication within a multi-chip module, because of its low power, small footprint, and reasonable operation speed.

Inductorless 8.9 mW 25 Gb/s 1:4 DEMUX and 4 mW 13 Gb/s 4:1 MUX in 90 nm CMOS

Takayuki Sekiguchi,Shuhei Amakawa,Noboru Ishihara,Kazuya Masu 대한전자공학회 2010 Journal of semiconductor technology and science Vol.10 No.3

A low-power inductorless 1:4 DEMUX and a 4:1 MUX for a 90 nm CMOS are presented. The DEMUX can be operated at a speed of 25 Gb/s with the power supply voltage of 1.05 V, and the power consumption is 8.9 mW. The area of the DEMUX core is 29 × 40 μm2. The operation speed of the 4:1 MUX is 13 Gb/s at a power supply voltage of 1.2 V, and the power consumption is 4 mW. The area of the MUX core is 30 × 18 μm2. The MUX/DEMUX mainly consists of differential pseudo-NMOS. In these MUX/DEMUX circuits, logic swing is nearly rail-torail,and a low Vdd. The component circuit is more scalable than a CML circuit, which is commonly used in a high-performance MUX/DEMUX. These MUX/DEMUX circuits are compatible with conventional CMOS logic circuit, and it can be directly connected to CMOS logic gates without logic level conversion. Furthermore, the circuits are useful for core-to-core interconnection in the system LSI or chip-to-chip communication within a multi-chip module, because of its low power, small footprint, and reasonable operation speed.

Nanosilicon for single-electron devices

H. Mizuta,Y. Furuta,T. Kamiya,Y. T. Tan,Z.A.K. Durrani,S. Amakawa,K. Nakazato,H. Ahmed 한국물리학회 2004 Current Applied Physics Vol.4 No.2-4

This paper presents a brief overview of the physics of nanosilicon materials for single-electron device applications. We study howa nanosilicon grain and a discrete grain boundary work as a charging island and a tunnel barrier by using a point-contact transistor,which features an extremely short and narrow channel. Single-electron charging phenomena are investigated by comparing as-prepared devices and various oxidized devices. The optimization of grain and grain-boundary structural parameters is discussed forimproving the Coulomb blockade characteristics and realizing room temperature device operation.