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천성림 한국여성사학회 2020 여성과 역사 Vol.0 No.32
When Chinese ports were opened, Western protestant missionaries also arrived in China. By introducing Christianity that had been transformed by the Industrial Revolution (1760-1840) and the Civil Revolution, these Western missionaries brought radical changes to the lives of Chinese women, and thereby contributed to the birth of Chinese feminism. Under the notion that “God created humans, men and women alike, in his own image, both with two feet”, the Western missionaries initiated the Anti-Footbinding Movement in China. They also founded the first schools for females in China, from primary school to college. China saw its first women’s college in 1905, a mere 40 years after the first women’s college in the US was established in 1865. Christianity thus played an important role in closing the gap in female education between China and the West. Moreover, Western missionaries’ conviction that “the more civilized the country, the more rights its women have” had a great influence on the Chinese reformist intellectuals. With China under the threat of being partitioned following its defeat in the first Sino-Japanese War in 1895, the Chinese elite developed this revolutionary view into the idea that a country’s future success is dependent upon advancing women’s rights. The Chinese saw the importance of women as a means to enhance the national prosperity and defense, rather than genuinely embracing women’s freedom and emancipation. Accordingly, the women’s rights movement has since become a major part of the nationalist movements in modern China. 개항 후 중국에 온 서양 선교사들은 산업혁명과 시민혁명을 통해 변모한기독교를 전함으로써 중국여성의 삶에 혁명적 변화를 가져왔고 중국 페미니즘 탄생에 기여했다. 서양 선교사들은 “남녀 모두 똑같이 두 발을 갖고태어난 하느님의 귀한 창조물”이라며 중국 역사상 최초로 전족폐지운동을전개했고, “여성교육의 수준이 그 나라의 국력을 결정한다”며 소학교에서대학교까지 중국 역사상 최초의 여학교들을 설립했다. 여성교육에 관한 한기독교는 중국과 서양의 거리를 좁히는 데 크게 기여했다. “여권이 발달한나라일수록 문명국”이라고 하는 선교사들의 ‘여권=문명론’은 그들과 교류한 개혁적 중국지식인에게 영향을 주었다. 그리하여 1895년 청일전쟁에서의 패배 이후 등장한 중국 분할의 위기, 그리고 때마침 중국에 소개된 사회진화론Social Darwinism과 결합해 ‘여권=구국론’으로 발전했다. 여성의 해방과 독립보다는 여성을 부국강병을 위한 수단으로 활용하려고 한 것인데이후 중국의 여권운동은 민족주의 운동의 중요한 일부가 되었다.
淸末 女性解放論에 관한 一考察 - 『天義』報를 중심으로 -
천성림(Chun Sung Lim) 이화여자대학교 한국여성연구원 1992 여성학논집 Vol.8 No.-
Before the revolution of 1911 the main current of feminism in China was liberal feminism. However, "T'ien-i"(『天義』) which published by the pioneers of Chinese anarchists like Liu Shih-pei(劉師培) and his wife Ho Chen(何震) had more radical characters than the liberal feminism, because all writers for T'ien-i pao unfolded their feminism inspiring socialism and anarchism. They wrote confidently of the day when all gavrnment would be eliminated. Liu said, "Therefore, we stand for realizing the natural eqality of man, destroying artificial inequality, overthrowing every organ of rule, abolishing every association based on class or occupation, and uniting all the people of the world into one great mass to plan the complete happiness of mankind." Liu then drew up a sequence of stages beginning with the abolition of state and proceeding through eliminating national and racial boundaries, equalizing power, pleasure, and pain, and finally reaching absolute sexual equality. They advocated that home revolution, sex revolution and social revolution had to be performed at the same time, and reported that women of the lower classes, eapecially, women worker's miserable conditions as the product of industrialization under the pressure of imperialism, and pointed out that the causes which brought out their miserable conditions were up to inequality of distribution of property and exploitation of capitalists. More significantly, Liu wrote frequently of how industrialization resulted in the division of society into two classes, capitalists and workers. It is presummed that these feminism of "Tien-i" were influenced theoretically from the socialistic feminism of Europe which had predominated from the late 19th to early 20th century. Especially the feminism in "T'ien-i" has an eye to realization of eqality rather than liberty. Eventhough it was a diffrent line from the feminism which was the main current, it is thought to have a historical significance in the point that the violent anti-feudalism which was reflected in it is connected with the criticism on feudalism in New Culture Movement.
천성림 한국여성사학회 2022 여성과 역사 Vol.- No.36
Ironically, while widow chastity was at its height in late Qing China, the practice of widow remarriage by abduction, known as 'Bijiao (逼醮),' also became prevalent. It developed in rural areas among the poor. One major factor that contributed to this custom was a shortage of women, which made it difficult for many men to find a wife. It was also motivated by the desire to reduce the burden of increasingly extravagant marriage rituals and expenses, particularly that of the betrothal gifts to the bride's family. When a man married a widow, though, most of the betrothal gifts were given to her deceased husband's family. So Bijiao was mostly organized by this deceased husband's parents and brothers who sought monetary gain from the widow's remarriage. Though similar to Bossam, a form of bride kidnapping in Joseon Korea, the Chinese practice was more organized and commercialized: often professional matchmakers and kidnappers joined in preying on a widow to make excessive profits. Even though the Chinese government tried to abolish the ill practice by imposing capital punishment, it continued to exist until the Republican era. This was largely due to worsening rural poverty and the continuing shortage of women in times of political instability. Women continued to die, often by suicide, in the Bijiao process throughout this period.