朴元? 저, 『明淸徽州宗族史硏究』, 지식산업사, 398쪽, 2002

元廷植(Won Jeong-Sik) (서평자) 역사교육연구회 2004 역사교육 Vol.89 No.-

淸初 福建社會와 遷界令 實施

元廷植(Won Jeong-Sik) 동양사학회 2003 東洋史學硏究 Vol.81 No.-

明末~淸 中期 閩南의 市場과 宗族

元廷植(Won Jeong-sik) 역사학회 1997 역사학보 Vol.155 No.-

중국 가족의 오래된 미래 - 明代 福建의 家族을 중심으로 -

원정식(Won, Jeong-sik) 동양사학회 2020 東洋史學硏究 Vol.153 No.-

明·淸代 詔安縣 宗族과 陳元光 崇拜

元廷植(Won, Jeong-Sik) 동양사학회 2017 東洋史學硏究 Vol.138 No.-

종족 이야기와 종족 형성 - 명대(明代) 복건(福建) 향산조씨(香山曹氏) 조사공(曹四公) 이야기를 중심으로 -

원정식 ( Won¸ Jeong-sik ) 강원사학회 2021 江原史學 Vol.- No.37

시조를 확정하는 것은 종족을 만드는 과정에서 가장 먼저 해결해야 할 과제였으며 영양현의 향산조씨도 예외가 아니었다. 시조에 대한 구전 자료의 문자화는 시조 이야기를 체계화하고 신빙성과 권위를 부여함으로써 종족을 결집하고 정체성을 확립하는 핵심 과정이었는데, 거인 소신이 쓴 조사공전(1486년)과 용암현지의 열전에 수록된 조사공전(1558년)이 그 예다. 이에 향산조씨는 대부분의 종족들과 달리 족보 편찬 전에 최소한 시조 조사공에 대한 두 가지의 권위 있는 전기를 가질 수 있었고 그 결과 종보 편찬이나 종족 결집이 효율적으로 진행될 수 있었다. 조사공 이야기가 문자화되고 지방지에 수록될 수 있었던 데는 15세기 중반 복건성을 비롯한 각 지역의 반란으로 지역질서가 재편되는 속에서 국가권력과 협력하고 종족화를 통한 자신들의 생존과 발전을 추구하려는 향산조씨 일족의 노력이 있었다. 조종례(20세)가 거인 소신에게 조사공(9세) 이야기의 문자화를 부탁한 것이나, 조사공이 용암현의 대표적인 선인이자 도사이며 인제라는 악습을 폐기시킨 인물임을 부각시켜 용암현지의 열전에 수록될 수 있었던 것도 그 결과다. 그 결과 16세기 후반 향산조씨는 종보 편찬 과정에 사실주의를 앞세우면서도 기초로 절충과 합의를 통해 ‘원조 조돈후, 시조 조사공’으로 시조문제를 정리하고, 지역사회의 불안정, 반란에 따른 주민들 간의 갈등, 국가질서와 민간질서의 충돌에 따른 혼란, 조씨 일족 내의 분란 등을 극복하고 종족을 결집시킬 수 있었다. Deter mining the first ancestor was the most importantt ask in the process of forming a clan, and Xiangshan Cao clan was no exception. The textualization of oral data o n t he first ancestor was a key process of forming a clan and establishing identity by organizing first ancestor’s stories and granting them credibility and authority. The members of the Xiangshan Cao clan, who first published the first genealogy in 1588, worked on the textualization of their first ancestor story more than a hundred years ago. The result is the Suxin(蘇信)’s Caosigong biography(1486) and the Longyan-xianzhi(龍巖縣志)’s Caosigong biography(1558). Unlike most clans, Xiangshan Cao clan was able to efficiently compile their first genealogy and forming clan thanks to these two biographies. The reason why the first ancestor story was written and included in local gazettes was that the Cao clan tried to cooperate with the national power and organize their own clan to pursue their survival and development amid the reorganization of regional order in the mid-15th century. Since the mid-16th century, the awareness of Caosigong has spread and the instability of society around Xiangshan has heightened, leading to the development of a small clan into a large clan. The central figure was Cao wenye(曹文燁), who, along with the Xiangshan Cao clan, suppressed the rebellion of Suapu(蘇阿普), asked for the establishment of Ningyangxian(寧洋縣), and took the lead in building a county castle, a government office, etc. In 1588, with the cooperation of his brothers and nephews, he compiled the first Xiangshan-Cao clan genealogy in which the Tang period figure, Cao Dunhou (曹惇厚), was the distant ancestor and the Song period figure, Cao sigong, was confirmed as the first ancestor in Xiangshan. This was a compromise based on the agreement of the members by accepting the friendship of the Chen(陳) clan, the influential clan of Zhangzhou(漳州), and the wishes of the clan for a long history of the clan. According to historicism and the principle that “Write down what you know, but leave what you don’t know blank,” the genealogy from Cao Dunhou to Cao sigong was not included, and the records after Cao sigong also highlighted the genealogy’s credibility by emptying unknown names, dates of birth, and burial sites, etc. In addition, he actively accepted the clan code, rituals, national policies, and ideologies in his genealogy to resolve the instability of the community, conflicts between residents, conflicts between national and private orders, and conflicts within the Cao clan.

18세기 중국사회(中國社會)의 흡연문화(吸煙文化) 연구(硏究) -담배의 사회문화적 영향과 흡연례속(吸煙禮俗)의 형성을 중심으로-

원정식 ( Jeong Sik Won ) 명청사학회 2008 명청사연구 Vol.0 No.29

17世紀 地域과 世界의 만남 : 天主敎의 福建 傳來

원정식(Won Jeong-sik) 한국외국어대학교 역사문화연구소 2010 역사문화연구 Vol.35 No.-

In the late 15th Century Christianity rose from an European cult to a world religion in accordance with the expansion of the European world. During the course of this expansion, discords concerning the Portuguese royal patronage elicited hatred and conflicts in Europe including the pope. In late 16th Century these conflicts intensified with the rise of Spain and France and decline of Portugal, while mission works became politically and economically important. Conflicts and antagonism in many missionary groups in Europe recurred in the overseas mission works while the achievements gained by the recently founded Jesuits became objects of envy and jealousy among other groups.Diverse views about the missionary sites developed many different approaches, and they became the roots of the conflicts. When various missionaries with different nationalities were encountered in China, the conflicts that arose in Europe were repeated. The Jesuits, which had entered China first, admitted the Portuguese royal patronage, secured its footing in China conceding its highly developed raditions, but other missionary groups had difficulties in coming into China owing to the disapproval of Portugal, and other routes were not easily accessible due to the maritime embargo of Ming. So, after Spain occupied the Philippines and met Fujian merchants engaging in maritime trades vigorously, Franciscan and Dominican Orders secured their footings in Fuan, Fujian, where Jesuits began to work late. The Portuguese royal patronage made the missionary situation complicated.In the spread of Catholicism in Fujian, active participation of the Chinese played key roles from the start. Fujian Catholic believers living in other provinces and overseas came back, and spread it to their relatives or in hometowns, and in the course, lineage functioned as an important tool. The intellectuals and local gentlemen participated in spreading the religion through their knowledge and through their social connections. They taught Chinese to missionaries, worked as helpers, translating and editing books related to Catholicism. As local gentlemen baptized by Jesuits made it possible for the ranciscan and Dominican Orders to secure the mission works in Fuan area, Jesuits and Chinese played important roles in the settlement of the 2 missionary groups,But the unrealistic works in Fujian done by Franciscan and Dominican Orders, with hostile sentiments against Jesuits caused antichristian movements, damaging the basis of their own mission works but also the footings secured by Jesuits. The debates on ancestor-worship-ceremony they raised brought up political problems beyond the missionary approaches. The issues escalated from the debates in churches to the conflicts between pope and the emperor, and finally became one of the factors which withdrew the tolerance policy of the Kangxi emperor, resulting in the prohibition of Christianity during the eras of the Yongzheng, Qianlong emperors. 기독교는 15세기 말 서유럽의 팽창과 함께 유럽의 종교에서 세계의 종교로 성장해갔다. 그 과정에서 제일 먼저 나타난 것은 포르투갈의 보교권을 둘러싸고 교황청을 비롯한 유럽 세계 내부에서 일어난 증오와 갈등이었다. 이는 16세기 후반 포르투갈의 국력이 약해짐에 반해 스페인과 프랑스의 위상이 높아지고 선교가 정치, 경제적으로 중요해짐에 따라 더욱 고조되었다. 게다가 유럽의 많은 수도회 사이의 갈등과 대립은 해외 선교를 놓고도 그대로 반영되었으며, 창설된 지 얼마 되지 않은 예수회가 이룩한 큰 성과는 오랜 역사를 가진 수도회들에게는 선망과 질투의 대상이 되기에 충분했다. 그밖에도 선교지 사회에 대한 수도회간의 인식의 차이는 선교 방법의 차이를 가져왔고 이것 역시 갈등의 뿌리가 되었다. 유럽 각국의 국적을 가진 다양한 수도회의 선교사가 또 다른 문명국 중국에서 만나게 되면서 유럽내의 제모순이 중국에서 다시 재현되었다. 중국에 먼저 진입한 예수회는 포르투갈 보교권을 인정하고 중국의 높은 문명을 인정하며 성공적으로 적응하면서 기반을 잡아갔다. 그러나 포르투갈의 요구에 따르지 않은 여타 수도회는 포르투갈의 거부로 쉽게 중국에 입국할 수 없었으며 다른 루트도 명조의 엄격한 海防정책으로 여의치 않았다. 이에 도미니코회와 프란치스코회는 스페인이 필리핀을 점령한 후 갖은 노력 끝에 예수회 선교의 사각지대인 복건의 복안현에 교두보를 확보할 수 있었다. 그러므로 포르투갈 보교권이 복건의 선교 판도를 복잡하게 만든 계기가 되었다고 할 수 있다. 복건의 천주교 전파에는 초기부터 중국인의 능동적 참여가 중요했다. 다른 성이나 해외에 거주하면서 천주교를 믿은 복건인들이 돌아와서 가족과 고향에 천주교를 전했으며 이때 종족 관계는 중요한 선교 수단이었다. 또 지식인이나 신사들은 자신들의 학식과 관계망을 이용하여 선교에 참여했는데, 선교사에게 한어를 가르치고 선교사의 조수로서 활약했으며 천주교 관련 도서를 번역하고 편찬하기도 했다. 또 도미니코회와 프란치스코회가 복안에서 선교 기반을 잡을 수 있었던 데에는 예수회 선교사에게 세례를 받은 신사들의 도움이 컸다는 사실에서도 두 수도회의 복건 정착에 중국인과 더불어 예수회의 선교 활동이 중요했음을 알 수 있다. 복건에서의 프란치스코회와 도미니코회의 비현실적 선교나 예수회에 대한 적대감은 이후 복안현을 시작으로 복건 전역에서 반기독교 운동을 일으켜 자신들의 선교 기반뿐만 아니라 예수회의 그것도 크게 약화시키는 계기가 되었다. 또 이들이 제기한 의례논쟁은 선교 방법상의 문제를 넘어서 정치적 문제가 되었고 敎界내의 갈등을 넘어서 교황과 황제의 갈등으로 확대되었다. 그리고 결국 강희제가 천주교 관용 정책을 再考하고 옹정제와 건륭제가 천주교를 嚴禁토록 했다.

명대 복건의 (福建) 학위취득자 변화와 민남사회

원정식(Jeong Sik Won) 강원사학회 1996 江原史學 Vol.0 No.12

N/A

前近代 中國의 地方志 編纂

원정식(Won Jeong-sik) 역사문화학회 2001 지방사와 지방문화 Vol.4 No.1

The local gazettes of Fujian are almost the same in contents. quantity, and kinds as those of other Provinces. The tradition of the publication of local gazettes in China has been formed on the basis of both its succession through long history and its local diversity, and in that sense shows an extremely China-like characteristic. The publication of local gazettes in Ming and Qing dynasties developed over their social, economic and cultural maturity and the integrity into the Chinese Empire. This is easily understood when considering the quantity of the local gazettes or the rise of local characteristics as well as the arrangement of introductory remarks under a principled system and the relation with the publication of Comprehensive Geography of the Empire(大淸一統志) - General Gazette of Fujian(福建通志). Therefore, the premodern Chinese local gazettes carried not only the local diversities but also the centralistic unity. In the center of the publication of the local gazettes were local officials. They had the responsibilities of following the orders from the upper offices and governing their area under stability. They also had such recognition that they should collect the data for government and preserve the texts and the historical facts for lesson. However, the gentry, the other group playing the main role in the publication of local gazettes, participated in the publication to realize their selves. They did so as intellectuals trying to preserve historical facts, and as local powers to block the tyranny of local governmental officials, having love for their towns and lineages to raise their honor. These diverse motives sometimes made complex the characters of local gazettes. Since China has had a strong tradition in the publication of history, history was the source of information, and the ways of publishing history were the ways of arranging and artificializing the information. Thus, for the publication of local gazettes the methods of publishing history were adopted, and it was generally recognized that good historians only could publish good local gazettes. Good historians at that time studied history as their family learning and published the history of local areas privately. They are also easily seen to have participated in the publication of local gazettes. There was a spirit in those days that the publication of local gazettes was not just the publication of official documents but the act of writing the history, and that the participants were not just the publishers but the historians. This spirit has succeeded till today in the 21th century, and Yan Ju-qian(燕居謙), who completed the Jiaocheng Xianzhi(交城縣志) of Shanxi(山西) Province at the risk of his life and finally died from cancer in 1990, can be cited as its example. The expenses for the publication and printing of local gazettes were collected mostly from the local officials and the gentry, but in some local areas they were also collected considerably from the commoners without degree. It was because the motive of the publication of local gazettes was so diverse as to range from activities of town cherishment to the officials' building up their good deeds. This thus allowed room for so many local people to join together in the publication. This room could make the publication of local gazettes the business of all the people in the concerned local area.