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민은기 민족음악학회 2004 음악과 민족 Vol.28 No.-
In the history of music, the appearance of the printing technology has been considered a seminal event that profoundly reshaped musical works and activities, even though music printing had developed relatively slowly and lately than general printing because of technical complication. Music printing permitted much more people than before to access to music scores. This accessibility, in turn, provided many effects, such as the popularization and the secularization of music. Many authors have paid special attention to these effects of music printing on the dispersion accessibility of musical works and activities. However, the relationship between the printing technology and the social structure of music has not been seriously examined yet. Even though printing was not quite as instantaneous a revolution as has been usually thought, and there were also other causes obviously, it is certain that the appearance of music printing changed the structure of music society and its internal distribution of power. In addition, the quality of the printing should also he seen as a reflection of social conditions, which reflect the changing interrelationships between composer, performer, patron, publisher as well as the printer. The most apparent change of music society, caused by music print, is probably the growth of the music market, even though it was usually an intended market for some specific purchasers. Before scores had been printed, mainly their performers and patrons only purchased the manuscript, while the scores produced in great quantities were also bought by amateur musicians, music lovers and music schools. Patronage was no doubt declining as a means of subsidizing music; thus, while lavish performances of new compositions continued to take place, publication of the scores was less frequently considered necessary. Because the cost of publication itself was always enormous, works to be published were selected very carefully. With the development of printing technology, the publishers took a meditating linking role between composers and music consumers both professional and amateur; this was because it was mainly the publishers who chose the musical works they would publish before the music consumers could see them. In some cases, the popularity of the musical works influenced directly the decision to publish or not, but in other cases, it was solely in the hands of the publishers whether or not to publish. Due to their intermediate position and filtering role, they played an important part in determining public preference. In addition, music printing caused the generally accepted idea about a music composition; that is, music score is generally thought as music composition itself, rather than its performance. In the early years of music printing, performers were free to render a composition rather differently, not simply as an expression of their individual taste, but also because of the limited number of notational conventions adapted by composers. But gradually the language of music grew more complicated, and new printing techniques made it possible to keep pace with these changes. The demand for accurate copies that would ensure separate performances resembling each other came both from the composers and, to a lesser extent, their patrons. In effect, a composition became less the property of the performer and more that of its creator, as a reaction against the ambiguity inherent in scribal and early printed forms. The successful enforcement of new notational norms was made possible chiefly through the use of printing. In conclusion, there is no doubt that the invention of music printing and publishing was an important historical turning point from the era of patrons, when musicians and their works were supported and enjoyed mainly by the aristocratic patrons, to the mass era when regular citizens took active part in the musical arena. It contributed to appear professional composer, helped to create some popular music genres such as madrigal, polyphonic chanson and assisted in the growth of audience. Music printing finally fostered the modem idea of music society.
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민은기 서울대학교 서양음악연구소 2000 음악이론연구 Vol.5 No.-
In Korea there is so small number of women musicians, while the absolute majority of students in music are woman. This implies that there must be certain mechanism based on sexual discrimination in the musical education. The principal purpose of our study is to find the socio-cultural and institutional mechanisms creating and maintaining the discrimination based on male-female distinction, in the musical field. The sexual discrimination has been extensively examined in the feminism literature. Therefore, the previous studies based on feministic perspective are comprehensively examined and exploited for our study. It seems to us that the sexual discrimination can be easily found in musical society, for it is still under strong guild tradition in education, and close human network in professional activities. In that respect, we can expect to find the institutional rules and practices maintaining or reinforcing the sexual discrimination more clearly in musical field than other fields. The sexual discrimination and its consequences in musical field are studied by some Anglo-Saxon authors in analyzing the musical society in their countries. However, there are rare attempts to analyze this issue in Asian countries, in spite of the theoretical and practical importance. The sexual discrimination and its mechanisms can be different in Asian countries than in western countries, because of the strong paternalistic tradition. Korean musical society offers a very interesting research field. It is the most westernized field in Korean society. The western music introduced at the end of nineteenth century has almost replaced the traditional music in Korea. Traditional music is surviving only with the institutional public aide including financial subsidy and obligatory transmission in media. Now, Koreans listen the western classic or popular music, not even feeling that these are western music. In musical production, most of the music composed by most Korean composers does not show significant differences from those of Western music. Most Korean composers produce their works using the same musical theory and techniques, and most Koreans enjoy them as their own music. All this shows that the music field is the most westernized and modernized area in Korea. The westernization of Korean music society may make us to think that sexual discrimination is not severe in comparison with other fields. The westernization suppose that the rationality be put forward before the sex, and therefore lessen it. In fact, Korean society has been traditionally very paternalistic under the strong influence of Confucianism. However, the industrialization and westernization have brought about important changes, resulting in the improvement of women's social status and role. But the Korean music society is still characterized by strong paternalistic value and practices. Under the westernized surface, there is a strong sexual discrimination based on the paternalistic values and practices. However, it is interesting that the sexual discrimination in the field of music appears in a contradictory way we would expect. In Korea, the women are enforced to be musically educated instead of being deprived of the educational opportunity. Many feminist authors assert that the educational opportunity be not given fairly between male and female, and this enables the adverse selection against female in social and professional activities. However, the women in their early age are given more opportunity of musical education than their male counterparts. According to the survey we performed in 1999, female children and teen-agers have absolutely more musical lessons in the number and duration than male students. The problem seems to lie in the final objective of this musical education, not in the opportunity itself. Our survey shows clearly that parents set different objective in the musical education according to the children's sex. The objective parents set for their female children is not to make them professional musicians but to make them cultured. In a sarcastic way, they are musically educated to be a good bride. This social perception plays a negative role for the female because they are not considered as serious candidates to be a musical expert. We have very different picture in musical education when it is related to male. In general, the male children don't receive the musical lessons. They don't like to be musically educated and the parents don't want to give them the musical training and education. Their preferences are culturally determined: music is not the appropriate area for the men who must be brave. However, once that they decide to be a musical professional, they have very strong support from their parents and professors. They are considered as serious determined candidates in that they choose this field in spite of the opposition in the family. This gives them very important advantage in their educational and professional success. It is important but only one factor among many other factors explaining sexual discrimination in Korean musical society. Therefore we need to examine both musical education and professional activities, to find the important factors and the mechanisms creating and maintaining the sexual discrimination. In particular, such questions as follows will be central focus of our study: Where comes from this different perception in musical education? Is it culturally determined or determined by other factors such as income level or occupation? Do the male professors play a role in the sexual discrimination during the musical education? If so, what is their specific role? Does this discrimination continue to be maintained in the professional activities? If so, what are the specific mechanisms? In particular, male and female performers are expected different role in their professional activities? To find an answer to above questions, we need a general conceptual framework. We will use a system approach. It means that we consider musical society as a sub-system of a general society, in that the former is under the strong influence of the cultural values and rules formed in the latter. In this regard, the prevalent cultures in a society will determine the different expectations and role according to sex. In consequences, to understand the mechanisms behind the sexual discrimination practices, we have to examine the culture of society, especially its paternalistic aspect. Our general hypothesis is that sexual discrimination takes place first in the field of musical education through the interactions among actors and resulting rules. And it is maintained or reinforced in musical activity area by selective process advantageous for the male group. To examine these hypotheses, we will try to find the mechanisms by which sexual discrimination is created and maintained in Korean music society.
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바그너의 『니벨룽겐의 반지』에 나타난 여성주체의 정체성
민은기 서울대학교 서양음악연구소 2002 음악이론연구 Vol.7 No.-
The purpose of this article is to examine the feminity issue through the analysis of Wagner's 'Ring'. In particular, special attention is paid to the role of Bru¨nnhilde, the most important female character. As a daughter of gods, she has a supernatural power and helps the war heros in the warfield. Even though her special status, she was punished to fall asleep when she disobeyed Wotan, her father's order. This episode presages Bru¨nnhilde' tragic destiny, and represents the miserable fate of the women, doomed to obey the man's authority. After this event, her role shows that of the typical women: she falls in love with Sigfried, helps him. In sum, her role is limited to complement and emphasize the heroic exploits of Sigfried, representing the man's authority and order. Her tragic suicide just after the death of Sigfried demonstrate also clearly the long-tradition myth over the women's role, obedience to the man. These gender-related stereotypes are based on the myths, but reincarnated and reinforced by the Bru¨nnhilde's role in the "Ring of the Nibelung".
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오르페우스 신화와 오페라의 상징구조 연구 : 몬테베르디 오페라 "오르페오"를 중심으로
민은기 서울대학교 서양음악연구소 1998 음악이론연구 Vol.3 No.-
The Orpheus myth has been the most important theme throughout the history of opera, especially in the seventeenth century. The preference of composers for it can be explained by some inherent characteristics in itself; the hero of the myth is a supernatural musician, it is a passionate love story with marriage scene which accomodate easily at the celebrations of the novels's marriage, and it reflects the fundamental message of Christianity, death and resurrection. More important but often neglected reason may be the structure of symbol. In fact, the eternal themes of the art, namely, love, death and music keep a continual tension throughout the story and this gives a very strong artistic impetus to interpretate it in musical expression in their own way. Monteverdi's Orfeo is an good example in that it is based on the conflictual tripartite structure of symbol, and organize and develop them in a refined and creative way. Its analysis shows that the basic structure of Orfeo is musically reinterpretated and developed to reach an musical reconciliation. In addition, characters and changes in their role or emotion are well reflected in musical expression, harmony, melody and texture.
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