비잔티움 여성사에 있어 풀케리아 존재의 의미

김차규 ( Cha Gyu Kim ) 한국서양중세사학회 2012 西洋中世史硏究 Vol.0 No.29

Aelia Pulcheria was the daughter of Eastern Roman Emperor Arcadius and Empress Aelia Eudoxia. When her father Arcadius died in 408, her brother Theodosius II was made Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, at seven years old. On July 4, 414 a fifteen year old Pulcheria proclaimed herself regent over her brother, then thirteen, and made herself Augusta and Empress of the Eastern Roman Empire. Pulcheria took a vow of virginity when she became Augusta. Pulcheria`s reasons for a vow of virginity may have been for her deeply religious virtue and her deep piety. Pulcheria had found herself in a position where she would have to give her power up to her potential husband, for once a woman in the imperial court married her power was to be relinquished to her husband. In order for Pulcheria to keep her power within the imperial court she took a vow of virginity to ensure that another man could not share her power. She also adopted model of ``the New Helena``. The fathers identified Pulcheria with the famous mother of Constantine the Great. Most of Marcian and Pulcheria`s time as emperors was marked with religious conflict like issues with Nestorianism and the Council of Chalcedon. The Council of Ephesus occurred in Theodosius`s reign and involved two rival bishops. Nestorius, who was bishop of Constantinople, and Cyril of Alexandria. Nestorius was an advocate of diminishing the influence of the Mother of God, or Theotokos, from the Church. This came into conflict with the religious values Pulcheria represented as a virgin Empress, and a rivalry between the two ensued. Nestorius underestimated Pulcheria`s power. With the council at a standstill with no decision made, Theodosius had to make the decision for them. On the influence of Pulcheria, Theodosius ruled in favor of Cyril that the title of Theotokos was orthodox. During her time as Augusta, Pulcheria held a great deal of power in politics and although she was a women treated equally among other men of power. In the senate of Constantinople lay a bust in her honor along with the other Augusti. Finally the meaning of Pulcheria`s being in the byzantine women`s history was in the imitation placed upon her actions for power by the byzantine posterior empresses.

7세기 초 아랍과 비잔티움간의 전쟁을 통해 본 비잔티움 방어체제의 문제점: 헤라클레이오스 시대 시리아 지역을 중심으로

김차규 ( Cha Gyu Kim ) 한국서양중세사학회 2008 西洋中世史硏究 Vol.0 No.22

무아위야의 해군창설과 비잔티움의 대응 문제점

김차규(Kim, Cha-Gyu) 명지대학교 중동문제연구소 2009 중동문제연구 Vol.8 No.1

Muāwiyah, the Arabs' energetic governor of Syria, made the ship-building. His fleet raided Cyprus, Rhodes and Cos. The question arises, why Constans II had waited fourteen years after his accession, until the year 655, before taking any action at all against his enemy. The answer can be given : he needed time to prepare his forces. But for Constans II there was another requirement too. The ill feeling engendered by the monothelite controversy and the intrigues of Martina had left Constantinople dangerously split. It was of the first importance that he should somehow re-establish ― at least so far as he could ― religious and political unity. So Constans II had eight policies to cope with the new situation. These policies had problems in each policy. But in the longer run, they played an important role to reconstruct and to strengthen Byzantine Empire.

보고밀파(Bogomils)에 대한 비잔티움의 대응 의미 -10세기 중반~12세기 중반을 중심으로-

김차규 ( Cha Gyu Kim ) 한국서양중세사학회 2013 西洋中世史硏究 Vol.0 No.32

This article, focusing on ‘Empire and the unification of social structures’, researched the meaning of the byzantine confrontation on the Bogomils in the politics, military relations and socio-economic problems from the middle of the tenth century to the middle of the twelfth century. So, I analyzed a letter from Patriarch Theophylact of Constantinople to Tsar Peter of Bulgaria, the work of Euthymius Zigabenus, the polemic Discourse against the Heresy of Bogomil written by Cosmas the Priest, a 10th-century Bulgarian official. King Simeon`s death in 927 left Bulgaria exhausted. Bulgaria had to face serious internal problems. One of them was the heretical movement started under Simeon`s son and successor, Peter. Based upon the conception of earlier Eastern sects as to a permanent struggle between the forces of good and evil, Bogomilism was a Gnostic religiopolitical sect founded in the First Bulgarian Empire by the priest Bogomil during the reign of Tsar Petar I in the 10th century. It most probably arose in what is today the region of Macedonia as a response to the social stratification that occurred as a result of the introduction of feudalism and as a form of political movement and opposition to the Bulgarian state and the church. The Bogomils called for a return to early Christianity, rejecting the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and their primary political tendencies were resistance to the state and church authorities. This helped the movement spread quickly in the Balkans, gradually expanding throughout the Byzantine Empire and later reaching Kievan Rus`, Bosnia, Dalmatia, Rascia, Italy, France. Bogomilism was an outcome of many factors that had arisen in the beginning of 10th century, most probably in the region of Macedonia. It was also strongly influenced by the Paulicians who had been driven out of Armenia. The Church in Bulgaria tried to extirpate Bogomilism. Tsar Peter of Bulgaria asked the Byzantine Empire to help to solve problems of Bogomilism. But Patriarch Theophylact of Constantinople gave a several advises to Tsar Peter of Bulgaria. It was not an aggressive attitude, but a passive-negative attitude. Although the heresy was poorly regarded officially, such was the Byzantine Empire`s need for manpower that Alexius I Comnenus raised a unit of Bulgarian dualists from the neighbourhood of Philippopolis(now Plovdiv). Alexius did not proceed further against the dualist heretics until the last two years of his reign. At that time, under pressure from the Church to establish religious conformity, many Bogomils were forcibly converted, and their leaders either imprisoned or executed.

10세기 전반 비잔티움-아랍 간 전쟁의 의미

김차규(Kim, Cha-Gyu) 명지대학교 중동문제연구소 2012 중동문제연구 Vol.11 No.4

The article, focusing on the period of the emperor Romanus Lecapenus, is a writing and studying the meanings of the wars between Byzantium and the Arabs in the first 10th century. By 867, the Byzantine Empire had re-stabilised its position in both the east and the west, and the efficiency of its defensive military structure enabled its emperors to begin planning wars of reconquest in the east. After the coronation of Romanus Lecapenus, he thought that the Byzantine Empire had power enough to invade Arabs. Because it had enough population, ability to send a large scale campaign, new operations and tactics, and frontier cavalry. Romanus appointed the brilliant general John Kourkouas commander of the field armies in the East. John Kourkouas subdued a rebellion in the theme of Chaldia and intervened in Armenia in 924. From 926 Kourkouas campaigned across the eastern frontier against the Abbasids and their vassals, and won an important victory at Melitene in 934. The capture of this city is often considered the first major Byzantine territorial recovery from the Muslims. John Kourkouas continued the offensive with other noteworthy victories in Mesopotamia (943): these culminated in the reconquest of Edessa (944), which was especially celebrated for the return to Constantinople of the venerated Mandylion. The byzantine campaigns against the Arabs, in the first 10th century, means conversion from defence to offence in the operations and tactics. So I presume that this conversion became a base for the Nicephorus II Phocas's campaign against the Arabs.

아랍의 시칠리아 정복과 비잔티움의 대응

김차규(Kim, Cha-Gyu) 명지대학교 중동문제연구소 2014 중동문제연구 Vol.13 No.4

The Arab conquest of Sicily began in 827 and lasted until 902, when the last major Byzantine stronghold on the island, Taormina, fell. Why did the Arab conquest of Sicily last 75 years? Were there problems in the Arab conquest of Sicily? Or, was the Byzantine response excellent? There were several reasons. First, the Byzantine emperors sometimes dispatched the imperial fleet to Sicily to help the Byzantines. But the imperial fleet could not help the Byzantines of Sicily effectively because of the revolt of Thomas the slave which had weakened the army, and most of all, the navy. Secondly, there were rebellions among the Muslims and the civil wars of 886-900. Thirdly, The Muslims postponed the attack on the east of Sicily for attacks on Southern Italy. Ibrāhīm II campaigned in Italy. Fourthly, attacks of the Muslims in Val Demone, northeastern Sicily, were not facilitated, for there were many mountains in it. Fifthly, the Byzantines focused on defense. So, the Arab conquest of Sicily was to be quite unlike the rapid collapse of Visigothic Spain.

세계에 비춰 본 유럽 : 8~9세기 비잔티움과 서방 간 필리오퀘 논쟁의 의미

김차규 ( Cha Gyu Kim ) 한국서양사학회 2011 西洋史論 Vol.0 No.110

The principal clash between East and West in the realm of pure dogma was the question whether the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Son as well as from the Father, "ex Patre Filioque," as the Latin church had come to reach, or only from the Father, as the Greek church maintained. The Phrase and the son, (in Latin, filioque), was first added to the Nicene Creed at the Synod of Toledo(Spain) in 447. The formula was used in a letter from Pope Leo I to the members of that synod, reponding to the trinitarian heresies they were confronting. The Eastern Orthodox churches refused to accept a formula which they saw as an innovation in doctrine. When a project for the marriage of Charles and the reigning Byzantine empress fell through, the Frankish king decided to ruin Constantinople`s claim to universal jurisdiction. Filioque, One of the means used to achieve this end, was to bring the charge of heresy against the East. Fortunately for the cause of church unity, while the Roman Church approved Charlemagne`s political aims, it was decidedly opposed to his theological attack on Byzantium. Popes Hadrian I (772-795) and Leo III (795-816) defended the Council of Nicaea and formally rejected the interpolation in the Creed. In the ninth century, Pope Leo III agreed to the filioque clause theologically, but was opposed to adapting it in worship in Rome, and insisted on using the Nicence Creed in Mass in Rome as it was expressed at the Council of Ephesus and all the Ecumenical Councils up until that time. In 866, Photius opposed the insertion of the Filioque into the Constantinople Creed(381). On the other hand, it is theological issues, but also a power game concerning Bulgarian mission between Roman Church and Constantinople Church. The dispute, though it had not caused the severance of communion over a 600 year period, contributed to the Great Schism of the Eastern and Western branches in 1054. From thence I shall come to judge filioque controversy between the Byzantine and the West that has not only a theological meaning, but also political intentions of Frank kingdom, Pope and Byzantium.

7세기 중엽 아랍의 이집트 정복과 비잔티움 방어체제의 문제점

김차규(Kim, Cha-Gyu) 명지대학교 중동문제연구소 2010 중동문제연구 Vol.9 No.1

There were several problems of the byzantine defence system concerning the byzantine Egypt in the mid-7th century. They are largely divided in two parts. The one is military defence system, the other is psychological defence system. Military defence system was faced with problems in the decrease of number of army, the absence of positiveness of emperor to be at war, struggle of power at the byzantine court, Great Plague(541, 558 and 573/4), absence of the serious invasion of foreign countries for long times, local recruiting, problem of the arrangement of superior soldiers, and the duality of civil system and military system. Psychological defence system was faced with problems in the oppressive measure of the byzantine government against Monophysites who had a lack of confidence to policy of government, and a psychological unrest on the heavy tax which the byzantine government imposed on local economy which was decreasing in the mid-7th century in the area of Egypt. So military defence system and psychological defence system, concerning the byzantine Egypt in the mid-7th century, which were caused by Great Plague and the war between Byzantium and Persia, mean that the wrong policy of the byzantine government on local area caused troubles which made finally to turn the egyptian people to Arab.

7세기 아랍의 비잔티움 아프리카 정복의 의미

김차규(Kim, Cha-Gyu) 명지대학교 중동문제연구소 2013 중동문제연구 Vol.12 No.4

Arabs occupied Syria, Palestine, Egypt and Byzantine Africa in the 7th century. Medieval trade in the Mediterranean world was free due to the protection by the Byzantine navy before the Arab invasion, but the Arab invasion changed this circumstance. On the one hand, when Arabs occupied Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, the trade in the eastern Mediterranean world was temporarily stopped, and on the other, one of in the west of Mediterranean world persisted. After the occupation of Arabs of Syria, Palestine and Egypt, Byzantine Christians in these areas were persecuted. The Arab occupation of Byzantine Africa in the 7th century completely changed the circumstances of the western Mediterranean world. The invasion of Arabs shocked the Mediterranean world like that of the Germanic tribes gave a shock to Western Europe. The trade in the western Mediterranean world declined, and Christians of Byzantine Africa had to convert to Islam.

비잔틴 제국의 테마제도 : 기원문제를 중심으로

김차규(Cha Gyu Kim) 한국서양중세사학회 1998 西洋中世史硏究 Vol.- No.3

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