영토 · 해양 일지

도시환(Doh, Seehwan) 동북아역사재단 2016 영토해양연구 Vol.11 No.-

일본군‘위안부’ 문제의 현황과 국제인권법적 재조명

都時煥(See-Hwan Doh) 대한국제법학회 2008 國際法學會論叢 Vol.53 No.3

2007년 7월 미국 하원을 시작으로 네덜란드, 캐나다 의회에 이어 유럽의회의 결의안 채택에 이르기까지 일본정부에 대해 ‘위안부’ 문제의 해결을 촉구하는 국제사회의 한목소리는 이제 거스를 수 없는 거대한 물결이 되었다. 그러나 일본군‘위안부’의 강제동원 사실을 부인하며 역사교과서까지 왜곡하던 일본정부는 위안부 문제의 해결에 여전히 침묵과 외면으로 일관하고 있다. 더욱이 지난 5월 제네바에서 개최된 2008년 UN인권이사회 정기검토(UPR)에서는 ‘위안부’ 문제의 해결을 촉구하는 각국의 권고와 질의를 담은 실무그룹 보고서의 정식 채택에 맞서, 일본정부는 고노담화를 통한 사과, 조약을 통한 법적 문제의 해결, 아시아여성기금의 활동을 통해 ‘위안부’ 문제가 완결되었음을 주장하였다. 이에 지난 10월 27일 우리 국회도 ‘일본군위안부 피해자 명예회복을 위한 공식사과 및 배상 촉구 결의안’을 채택하였으며, 10월 30일에는 UN B규약(자유권규약)인권위원회가 처음으로 일본정부에 대해 ‘위안부’문제에 대한 법적책임을 인정하고 충분한 사죄와 적절한 보상조치를 조속히 강구할 것을 촉구하는 보고서를 발표하였다. 이와 같이 일본군 ‘위안부’ 문제의 해결을 촉구하는 국제사회의 목소리가 어느 개별국가의 의회 차원을 넘어서서 범국가적, 범세계적으로 확산되고 있는 것은 2차대전 당시 강제 동원되어 성노예로 희생된 ‘위안부’ 여성들의 피해가 단지 ‘아시아 지역의 과거사’에 국한된 문제가 아니라는데 인식을 공유하고 있음을 보여주고 있는 것이다. 그럼에도 불구하고 이에 대한 일본정부의 부인은 역사적 정의에 대한 부정이며 인류보편적 가치로서의 인간의 존엄성과 인권에 대한 도전인 것이다. 따라서 일본군‘위안부’ 문제의 진실에 대한 규명작업은 현재와 미래 세대 모두에게 부여된 역사적 과제이자 정의의 의무를 수행하는 것이다. 일본군‘위안부’ 문제는 제2차 세계대전 중 대표적인 반인권적 국제범죄로서 그에 대한 부각과 해결은 국제인권법의 이정표이자 시금석으로 자리매김하게 되었다. 2차 세계대전 이후 국제인권법의 발전은 일본과 독일의 침략과 잔학행위가 인간의 존엄성에 대한 극단적인 경시를 기초로 한 전통적인 국가우선주의 철학의 결과라는 점, 개인의 배상청구권은 인권의 본질적 부분으로서 인정되고 보장되는 것이라는 점, 인권 관련 제 조약의 체약국은 국제관습인권법에 대해서도 그 관할권 내에 있는 모든 개인에 대한 여러 의무를 이행해야 한다는 점, 중대한 인권침해에 대한 피해회복에 관련한 청구는 시효와 무관하다는 점, 뉘른베르크 재판 당시 인도에 반한 죄에 대해서는 이미 시제법의 위반이 아니라고 판시하였던 점을 상기하여야 할 것이다. 일본정부는 일본군‘위안부’ 문제가 전시하에서 여성의 인권을 말살한 반인권적 국제범죄임을 분명히 인식해야 한다. 또한 일본의 사법부 역시 위안부 문제의 핵심이 ‘법적인 평가’에 관련된 것인 이상 일본의 재판소가 문제의 완전한 해결을 위해 적극 나서지 않으면 안 된다. 일본이 주장하는 조약을 통한 법적 문제의 해결이라는 것은 법의 본질인 정당성과 공정성을 도외시한 채 형식적 합법성만을 주장하는 것으로 국제인권법의 토대로서의 법철학적 판단의 부재에 다름 아님을 인식해야 할 것이다. 오늘날 대표적인 국제인권 관할기관인 UN인권이사회와 UN B규약인권위원회 등 국제사회가 한목소리로 일본정부에 ‘위안부’ 문제의 해결을 촉구하고 있는 것은 ‘인류 보편적 가치로서의 인간의 존엄성’이 보호받아야 한다는 점 때문이다. 또한 국제사회 공동규범으로서의 국제법은 전시하에서의 여성과 아동에 대한 보호를 불가침의 강행규범으로 승인하고 있다. 일본정부는 인류의 보편적 정의와 양심으로 위안부 문제의 해결에 나서야 할 것이며, 위안부 피해자에 대한 사죄와 배상을 통해 평화를 지향하는 국제사회 공동체의 일원으로 거듭나야 할 것이다. The international community is now joining hands in calling for the early settlement of the issue of “comfort women,” forced into sexual slavery by the Japanese army during World War II. Parliaments of the Netherlands, Canada and the European Union adopted resolutions toward that end, following the lead of the U.S. Congress in July 2007. But the Japanese government, having denied its alleged forcible mobilization of the women and even approving distorted history textbooks, has continued to bury its head in the sand and keep mum despite increasing calls from the international community. In its Universal Periodic Review (UPR), the U.N. Human Rights Committee formally adopted a working-level report of many nations' recommendations and queries on the issue during a meeting held in Geneva last May. In defiance, the Japanese government renewed its claim that the comfort women issue had already been settled, citing its apology via the 1993 statement by then-Chief Cabinet Secretary Kono Yohei, the setup of an accord for legal resolutions and the launch of the Asian Women's Fund. In response, Korea's National Assembly on Oct. 27 also adopted a resolution demanding a formal apology, compensation and the restoration of the honor of the victims. The U.N. committee's B-Convention on Oct. 30 first presented a report calling on the Japanese government to acknowledge its legal responsibility over the issue and to make appropriate apologies and compensation as soon as possible. As me nt i oned above , t he i nt er nat i onal c ommuni t y, beyond t he differences of nationalities and political entities, is joining forces in calling for a solution to the problem, which shows the matter is not mere “past history in the Asian region.” Japan's denial is against historical justice and poses a frontal challenge to the universal value of human dignity and human rights. Shedding light on the issue of comfort women is a historical mission imposed upon current and future generations, and a must for justice. The mobilization of comfort women is regarded as one of the most representative cases of crimes against humanity committed during WWII, of which settlement will surely be a landmark and milestone for international human rights. International human rights law for the post-WWII period has been focused on the following points: The aggression and atrocities of Japan and Germany were the result of chauvinistic nationalism sacrificing human dignity. The individual right to demand compensation is an essential part of human rights. Nations with agreements on human rights should carry out various duties on individuals within their jurisdiction in accordance with the International Customary Human Rights Law. There is no statute of limitations on heinous crimes against humanity involving appeals for damages. Judges at the Nuremberg trials ruled that crimes against humanity are not subject to the statute of limitations. Japan needs to bear in mind the aforementioned principles in dealing with the issue. The Japanese government should admit that it committed a crime against humanity by mobilizing women as sexual slaves during war. And Japan's courts should also roll up their sleeves to find a fundamental solution to the problem, which largely hinges on “legal judgment.”Japan has been calling for ending the dispute through accords, which shows Japan's lack of judgment from legal and philosophical perspectives by asserting only formal legality while ignoring justice and fairness. International organizations like the U.N. Human Rights Committee have been calling for the settlement of the issue to protect the universal value of human dignity and human rights. In addition, international law, as the common code of the international community, puts more stress on the protection of women and children during armed conflicts. The Japanese government needs to show a sincere attitude to be reborn as a responsible member of the international commu

한일조약체제와「식민지」책임의 국제법적 재조명

도시환(DOH See-hwan) 대한국제법학회 2012 國際法學會論叢 Vol.57 No.3

본 연구는 「식민지」책임이라는 관점에서 한일조약체제를, 1910년 한일병합조약체제, 1951년 대일강화조약체제, 1965년 한일협정체제, 2010년 한일지식인에 의한 “1910년 한일병합조약은 원천무효”라는 공동성명을 기점으로 한 「식민지」책임에 대한 판결 체제, 그리고 남겨진 현안과제이자 역사적 후속작업으로서 2015년 한일협정 체결 50년 체제로 구분하여, 각 조약체제상의 국제법적 문제점과 그 극복방안에 대해 재조명해 보았다. 2010년 한일 양국 지식인이 ‘역사적 정의’에 입각하여 천명한 “1910년 한일병합조약은 원천무효”라는 공동성명에서와 같이, 침략을 본질로 하는 무효사유로서의 1910년 한일강제병합조약을 전제로 한 일제식민지배의 불법성을 해소하기 위해서는 한일청구권협정상 배상청구권이 포함되어야 하며, 그러한 불법적인 식민지배로부터 시작된 일본의 독도영유권 주장 역시 카이로 선언(1943년) 및 포츠담 선언(1945년)에서 일본이 ‘폭력과 탐욕에 의해 약탈한’ 영토인 독도를 일본의 영역에서 분리하여 취급할 것을 명시하고 있음을 주지해야 할 것이다. 일본정부는 지금까지 1910년 ‘한일병합’에 대해 유효부당론을 포함하여 합법이라는 전제에서 1951년 대일강화조약체제 하에 1965년 한일협정체제를 복속시킴으로써 전후 책임을 외면해 왔다. 그러나 한국은 1951년 대일강화조약의 비당사국일 뿐만 아니라 2010년 한일지식인 공동성명을 통해 “1910년 한일병합조약은 원천무효”가 천명됨으로써, 연합국에서 제외된 한국으로서는 한일간 양자조약인 1965년 한일협정에서조차 배제된 불법식민지배 책임을 포함하여 전후배상을 위한 논의의 토대가 최초로 구축된 것이다. 더욱이 2011년 8월 헌법재판소가 내린 일본군‘위안부’ 및 원폭피해자 문제와 관련하여 한일청구권협정 제3조상의 중재재판을 근거로 한 부작위위헌결정을 비롯하여, 지난 5월 24일 대법원은 12년간에 걸친 강제징용피해 배상소송과 관련하여 불법적인 일제강점기의 식민지배 자체를 합법으로 보는 일본판결은 대한민국 헌법의 핵심적인 가치와 상충되므로 승인할 수 없다는 역사적 정의에 입각한 판결을 내렸다. 따라서, 2015년 한일협정 체결 50년을 앞둔 시점에서, 한일 양국 지식인공동성명에서 천명된 ‘1910년 한일병합조약은 원천무효’라는 국제법적 불법론에 입각하여, 1951년 대일강화조약의 비당사국인 한국으로서는 양자조약인 1965년 한일협정체제에서도 해결하지 못한 「식민지」책임에 대한 국제법적 문제점을 규명해 나가야 할 것이다. 이를 통해 2015년 반세기를 맞이하는 한일협정체제가 역사갈등의 본질적 문제를 극복함과 아울러 진정한 역사화해를 모색함으로써 평화와 번영의 동북아시대를 위한 한일조약체제로서 국제법적 기여를 다할 수 있어야 할 것이다. The Korea-Japan Treaty System in the perspective of the responsibility for colonial rule is classified as Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty system of 1910, The system of the Treaty of Peace with Japan of 1951(Treaty of San Francisco), The system of the Korea-Japan Basic Relations Treaty in 1965, Ruling system based on the responsibility for colonial rule started with scholars’ a joint statement; ?Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty is originally invalid? in 2010 and the Basic Relations Treaty semi-centennial system of 2015 which remains as a current issue and needs to historically follow-up. In this essay treaty systems are respectively reexamined legal issues on the international level and I try to seek for handling measures. Like the joint statement by Korean and Japanese scholars that “Japan -Korea Annexation Treaty is originally invalid”, to eliminate illegality of Japanese colonial rule based on Japan-Korea Annexation treaty of 1910 concluded through coercion which can be invalid due to invasion, the Annex agreement of the Basic Relations Treaty relates to the right of claim must include the right to demand reparation. Besides the claim of the Japanese sovereignty over Dokdo started since illegal colonial rule period needs to review that Japan specified that Dokdo conquered with violence and greed by Japan would be treated separately from the Japanese territory in Cairo Declaration(1943) and in Potsdam Declaration(1945). Under the premises that the Japan-Korea Annexation in 1910 is legitimate including the “unjust but valid” theory, Japanese government has been disregarding the post-war responsibility. Korea has had no legal basis to claim for post-war reparations as Korea was excluded from the Allied Powers as well as is a non-contracting party to Treaty of Peace with Japan of 1951. Proclaiming that the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty is originally nullified through the joint statement of intellectuals in 2010, the foundation is laid for the first time for discussing post-war reparations including responsibility of illegal colonial rule by Japan excluded even in the Basic Agreement of 1965. Moreover, the Constitutional Court ruled a decision on unconstitutionality of omission regarding Japanese military’s Comfort Women and atom bomb victim issues based on arbitration on the Korean-Japanese claim agreement article 3 in August 2011 and the Supreme Court rendered a verdict related to appeal for redress for the compulsory manpower draft of 12 years duration that Japan’s Judgment which regards the colonial rule as legitimate is against the core value of Constitution of Republic of Korea. Therefore, at this point with only three years before the 50th anniversary for the “Basic Agreement of 1965”, we need to clear up such problems of the responsibility for colonial rule on the perspective of international law based on the Korean-Japanese intellectuals’ joint statement that Korea-Japan Annexation Treaty is originally null and void. By doing so, Korea-Japan Basic Treaty System which becomes half a century in 2015 after entering into the Korea-Japan Basic Agreement must contribute to build peaceful and prosperous North East Asia era on the perspective of international law overcoming the fundamental problems of historical conflicts and finding a way of true history reconciliation.

1910년 ‘한·일병합조약’의 국제법적 재조명

도시환 ( Doh See-hwan ) 한국외국어대학교 법학연구소 2010 외법논집 Vol.34 No.1

The year 2010 is marking the centennial of Japan's forced annexation of Korea. Japan has claimed that the Korea-Japan Annexation Treaty of 1910 was legally and morally valid. Or, it has made a far-fetched argument that the treaty was, at least, legal, even though it was seen as lacking in moral validity. It is a task of historical importance as well as a call for justice to get a glimpse of the true nature of the ongoing conflict between Korea and Japan over the shameful modern history ahead of the 100th anniversary of the annexation treaty. In the 21st century, the two countries need to work together to contribute to peace and prosperity in Northeast Asia through mutual understanding and cooperation. For this, they should first overcome the painful legacy of the 20th century and their dark history. But the deep-rooted memories of aggression and the scars of plunder and exploitation still remain a barrier to a better future for co-existence and co-prosperity. It goes without saying that Japan's coerced annexation of Korea is the root cause of the conflict over history. This conflict is the vestiges of Japan's imperialism and aggression that should be eliminated. The pending historical issue confronting the two countries stems from the annexation. In judgment the effect of the Korea-Japan forcible annexation in 1910 as a historical event from the perspective of international law, we can divide it into the following three opinions based on reviews based on the relations between legality and legitimacy. First, legality theory beors the position held by then Japan, which claims that the annexation was for the sake of Oriental peace without the p and legal problems, asserting the treaty was made under a due process based on free will and equalon heSecond, the vsiti but un but theory roces view held by the majority of scholarocend polonicians in Japan todayheIt claims that the treaty of annexation was not prohibited by the then positive lawheLastly, Korean and conscientious Japanese scholarocessert the treaty failed to have legal requirementscondit was made in forcible means without permit from then emperor. According to this, legality and legitimacy should not be separated in the assessment of Japan's annexation of Korea. Legitimacy is a basic prerequisite and a common value that should be met to fulfill the legality and therefore must be considered together when assessing an international act or event from the legal point of view. Nevertheless, what matters is that majority of Japanese relevant figures see this as separable. First, Article 2 of the Treaty on the Basic Relations between Korea and Japan stipulates that “All treaties and agreements made between the Empire of Korea and the Empire of Japan are confirmed as null and void already.” With regard to the ‘void’ period, the government of Japan claims that old treaties and agreements were made in both legality and validity until the 15th of August in 1948. However, the article can be reasonably understood as to mean and confirm that the past annexation was retroactively invalid, because ‘void’ was used instead of ‘voidable’ when selecting the legal terms. Second, the treaty failed to fulfill the requirements for the validity of an international treaty according to the international law for the following reasons: Japanese demonstration of its military power and threatening up to the point of annexation of Korea, coerced conclusion of a treaty, omission of Korean emperor’s signature and seal on the original treaty document and non-existence of the ratification of the treaty. Third, an absolutely invalid treaty in its essence can not be changed in the status of its validity by the approval of a third party country. Therefore, approval of the annexation by a third party country can not create any legal effect at all. Fourth, with regard to the ‘Intertemporales Recht’ which is claimed by Japan as a reference for legal judgment, it was commonly said even at that time that a treaty without a commission of full powers or ratification was invalid when we analyzed the forms and procedures for concluding a treaty explained in well-known introductory books on international law in 1910 such as L. Oppenheim and Ariga Nagao. Fifth, even though Japan claims legality of the treaties, colonization through annexation is an international crime against peace and humanity, infringing the rights to live peacefully, from the viewpoint of ‘lex ferenda.’ Now we are seeking to establish the right history and promote historical reconciliation as the centennial of Japan's forced annexation and colonization of Korea approaches. Japan's colonial rule in Korea was illegal because it was made possible due to the invalid annexation treaty. As such, the conscription of young Koreans was illegal. Besides, the mobilization of comfort women was the violation of jus cogens, as a peremptory norm of general international law. Japan should recognize that its denial of disgraced history is tantamount to a negation of justice and a refusal of peace. The Tokyo government ought to resolve the history conflict by respecting the universal values of justice and conscience. Only after that can Japan truly become a peace-loving member of the international community.

한일청구권협정 관련 대법원 판결의 국제법적 평가

도시환(See Hwan Doh) 한국국제사법학회 2013 國際私法硏究 Vol.19 No.1

동아시아의 여성정책

도시환(Doh See-Hwan) 한국법학원 2017 저스티스 Vol.- No.158-2

동아시아의 여성정책에 대한 논의의 출발은 20세기로부터의 유산인 동아시아지역의 최대 역사 현안이자 평화공동체를 지향하는 국제사회의 최대 인권 현안으로서 일본군‘위안부’ 문제의 해결이 되어야 할 것이다. 그것은 21세기 현 시점에서도 국제사회 인권문제의 블랙홀이자 병목현상의 주범으로서 동아시아 여성정책의 총체적인 발전을 잠식하고 있기 때문이다. 일본정부는 2007년 7월 미국 하원을 시작으로 네덜란드, 캐나다, 유럽 의회 등 전세계적인 일본군‘위안부’ 결의채택에 대응하여, 2008년 6월 개최된 유엔인권이사회 국가별 정례인권 검토회의 (Universal Periodic Review; UPR)에서, 자국에 가장 유리한 논거로, 고노 담화를 통한 사과, 아시아여성기금을 통한 보상, 조약을 통한 법적 문제의 해결 등 일본군‘위안부’정책을 제시하였다. 그러나 일본정부의 정책은 다음과 같은 비판을 받고 있다. 첫째, 2007년 1차 집권 이래 아베 내각은 ‘위안부’의 강제동원을 부인하였을 뿐만 아니라 재집권 이후 고노담화에 대한 검증결과의 발표를 통해 신뢰성을 훼손함으로써 정치적 수사에 불과한 것으로 퇴행시켰다. 둘째, 아시아여성기금의 경우 공식 사죄와 배상이라는 피해자들의 요구를 외면한 채 반인도 범죄에 대한 일본의 국가책임 회피수단에 불과한 것으로, 이미 1998년 유엔특별조사관인 맥두걸 보고서는 적절한 국제적 대표자로 구성된 새로운 행정기금의 설치를 주장했다. 셋째, 조약을 통한 법적문제의 해결과 관련하여 일본이 전가의 보도마냥 주장해 온 1910년 ‘식민지배합법론’과 1965년 ‘한일협정완결론’에 대해, “1910년 한일병합조약은 원천무효”라는 2010년 한일지식인 공동성명을 기점으로 2011년 헌법재판소와 2012년 대법원은 “일본의 국가권력이 관여한 반인도적 불법행위를 비롯하여 식민지배와 직결된 불법행위에 대한 손해배상청구권이 한일협정에 포함되지 않았다”는 역사적인 판결을 내렸다. 그럼에도 불구하고, 2015년 12월 28일 한일 정부간 합의 이후, 유엔 여성차별철폐위원회(the UN Committee on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW))의 2016년 2월 16일 일본에 대한 심의 당시 스기야마 신스케(杉山晋輔) 외무성 심의관의 일본군‘위안부’ 강제연행 부정과 발언 내용의 외무성 홈페이지 게재, 기시다 후미오(岸田文雄) 외무상의 한일협정완결론의 강조와 배상금적 성격 부정, 아베 총리의 피해자에 대한 사죄편지 거부로 이어진 일련의 행보는 일제 식민지배 여성에 대한 전쟁범죄로서 일본군‘위안부’ 피해라는 중대한 인권침해의 구제를 정책적으로 부정해온 궤적의 전형이자, 정부간 합의의 본질에 대한 형해화에 다름아님에 주목해야 할 것이다. 결론적으로, 일본정부는 인류보편적 가치로서의 인권에 대한 침해이자 반인도적 범죄로서의 일본군‘위안부’ 피해에 대한 사죄와 배상을 통한 명예회복에서 나아가 재발방지를 위한 책임자의 처벌 및 교육을 정책적으로 조속히 시행함으로써, 동아시아 최대 역사 현안이자 국제사회 최대 인권 현안으로서의 일본군 ‘위안부’ 문제를 해결해야 할 것이다. As a starting point of the discussion on women policies in East Asia, there should be some resolutions in the issue of ‘comfort women.’ Remaining as a remnant of 20th century, it is one of the most pressing historical issue of East Asia, as well as the greatest humanitarian issue of the international society. This issue brings an alarm to the 21st century because it hinders the development of women policy in East Asia as a whole as the main source of the black hole of the human rights problem. In the Universal Periodic Review (UPR) held in June 2008, the government of Japan proposed its ‘comfort women’ policy, which includes apologies through Kono Dialogue, reparation through Asian Women Fund, and legal solution through treaties, based on the grounds that are highly beneficial for its national interest. It is considered to be a response to worldwide adoption of the ‘Comfort Women’ resolution, which started from the US Congress in July 2007 and expanded to legislatures of the Netherlands, Canada, European Union, and etc. However, the policy by the Japanese government is criticized by following reasons. Firstly, ever since its first term, the Abe cabinet not only denied the compulsory mobilization of comfort women, but also defamed credibility of the Kono Dialogue by announcing the verification results and degenerated it as a mere political rhetoric. Secondly, Asian Women Fund is a mere hedging instrument to avoid criticisms for the crime against humanity without any considerations on the demand of the victims for proper apologies and reparations. Already, in 1998, the McDugall Report stated that it should be replaced with a new fund consisted of proper international representatives. Thirdly, regarding to Japan’s solution through treaty, the Constitutional Court in 2011 and the Supreme Court in 2012 made a historical decision that “the claims for damages done by the atrocities and crimes during the Japanese colonial rule were not included in the contents of the Korea-Japan Normalization Agreement in 1965” after the Joint Declaration of Korea-Japan Intellectuals in 2010 that announce that ‘the Annexation Treaty in 1910 was invalid.’ These are counters against the previous Japanese claims that ‘colonial rule was inevitable’ in 1910 and ‘all reparations were completed via Korea-Japan Normalization Agreement’ in 1965. Despite such criticisms, after inter-governmental consensus between Korea and Japan in 2015, Deputy Director-general of Japanese Foreign ministry, Sugiyama Shinsuke, denied the compulsory mobilization of comfort women during CEDAW in February 16th 2016, and uploaded this statement to the homepage. Foreign Minister, Kishida Humio, emphasized the completion of the deal in 1965 and Prime Minister Abe opposed to write apology letter to the victims. Seen from this process. it is a typical case of denial of comfort women, the atrocity against women, and damage to fundamentals of the inter-governmental consensus. In its final analysis, the comfort women issue was an atrocity against human rights, which is an universal virtue. Thus, the Japanese government should apologize and compensate for the damages of the comfort women victims and recover their dignity, and implement policies to be responsible for punishment of the perpetuators and prevention of such atrocity against humanity. As the most important historical issue of East Asia, and the most pressing humanitarian issue of the international society, the comfort women issue should be resolved promptly.

일본군‘위안부’ 문제의 해결을 위한 국제법적 과제

도시환 ( Doh See-hwan ) 한국외국어대학교 법학연구소 2015 외법논집 Vol.39 No.1

After spending six years as U.N. human rights chief, Navi Pillay strongly urged Japan to investigate “every allegation of sexual slavery” and “prosecute perpetrators” through a rare statement and then again a media interview last month. Her perspective and interest in the issue of the “comfort women” stand out because they demonstrate the international community’s human rights standards and growing demands for Tokyo’s action. In the Aug. 6 statement, Pillay expressed “profound regret that Japan has failed to pursue a comprehensive, impartial and lasting resolution of the issue of wartime sexual slavery” and thus the human rights of the victims “continue to be violated decades after the end of the Second World War.” During an Aug. 31 press interview, she criticized the Japanese government and ultra-conservative forces, saying she was “shocked” that some civic groups even raised questions about the genuineness of the victims while no progress was being made at all on the resolution of the sex slavery issue. Pillay also repeatedly emphasized that the U.N. has recommended Tokyo offer an apology and compensation through the Human Rights Council’s Universal Periodic Review and other various treaty organizations and human rights experts. The international community has been rallying behind the cause. Since the U.S. House of Representative adopted a resolution calling for Japan’s acknowledgement, apology and redress for its wartime sex slavery in July 2007, similar measures have been taken in the Netherlands, Canada, the European Parliament and elsewhere. In response, the Japanese government has been insisting that the issue has been resolved. At the UPR meeting in June 2008, it made a case using logic that is most favorable to its position, such as involving the 1993 Kono Statement, the 1995 Asia Women’s Fund and previous accords. Yet the Japanese government’s argument failed to calm the criticism. First, the Kono Statement came after the historic public testimony by victim Kim Hak-sun in 1991, the unearthing of documents by professor Yoshiaki Yoshimi in 1992, and an ensuing 20-month investigation that led Tokyo to acknowledge its military’s involvement in the forced mobilization of the women. Upon its inception in 2006, however, the Shinzo Abe administration set out to deny “the forcibleness in a narrow sense,” downplaying the landmark statement as mere political rhetoric. Second, the Asia Women’s Fund was simply a tool for Japan to disregard the victims’ demands for a formal apology and compensation and evade its state responsibility for what constitutes war crimes against humanity. In 1998, U.N. Special Rapporteur Gay McDougall issued a watershed report calling for the establishment of a “new administrative fund with appropriate international representation” since the Asian Women’s Fund “does not in any sense provide legal compensation.” Third, contrary to Japan’s claim, the 1951 San Francisco Peace Treaty could not clear its legal responsibility for sex slavery, because the pact was signed when Korea’s signatory status was excluded in the first place, with Japan taking the lead. The 1965 agreement that normalized bilateral relations also address neither crimes against humanity involving Japan’s state power nor any illegal acts directly linked with colonial rule. The 2010 joint statement by intellectuals in Korea and Japan, a 2011 ruling by the Korean Constitutional Court and a 2012 verdict by the Supreme Court here all reaffirmed internationally recognized historical truths. Against this backdrop, Tokyo’s argument that its forced annexation of Korea was legal, as well as its sexual enslavement of young women who lived in regions it invaded including Indonesia during the Pacific War, violates international law as follows. First, these actions constitute crimes against humanity, which means cases in which anti-human acts such as killings of civilians, extermination, slavery-like exploitation, rape, sexual enslavement are committed extensively or systemically regardless of the region’s domestic law, in not only wartime but also peacetime. Second, it constitutes sexual slavery, which breaches the 1930 International Labor Organization Convention concerning forced labor, ratified by the Japanese government in 1932. In May 2014, Seoul officially demanded Japan’s resolution of the issue at an ILO panel session. Third, it runs counter to the Article 46 of the 1907 Hague Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, which prohibits rape during wartime. Fourth, it violates the 1910 Convention for the Suppression of White Slave Traffic, which Japan ratified in 1925, the 1921 International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children, and the 1926 Slavery Convention, which works as customary international law. Fifth, Japan’s war responsibilities remain unresolved since the mobilization of “comfort women” is applicable to the Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity, adopted by the U.N. General Assembly in 1968. Given that today’s international human rights law was born out of the soul-searching on the aggression and atrocities committed by Japan and Germany during World War II which marked extreme devaluing of human dignity, Pillay’s perception on the “comfort women” is in line with her statement issued while serving the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda that “From time immemorial, rape has been regarded as spoils of war. Now it will be considered a war crime. We want to send out a strong signal that rape is no longer a trophy of war.” In this vein, the Japanese government must atone and compensate the victims by realizing that sex slavery constitutes crimes against humanity and a breach of human rights which are a universal value. Ultimately, perpetrators should be held accountable, and education conducted to prevent a future relapse. I urge Tokyo to give the aging survivors one last chance to bring justice. Japan must bear in mind that it will leave the biggest, irreparable stain in human society if it fails to respond to the requests of Pillay and the overall international community.

식민지책임판결과 한일협정체제의 국제법적 검토

도시환 ( Doh See-hwan ) 한국외국어대학교 법학연구소 2014 외법논집 Vol.38 No.1

On August 30, 2011, the Constitutional Court of Korea made a decision on the constitutional petition filed by Korean “comfort women” for the Japanese military and Korean survivors of nuclear bombing in during World War II. The Court held that the Korean government’s non-performance of its obligation to work proactively on diplomatic negotiation or arbitration under Article 3 of the 1965 Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea (“Korea-Japan Basic Relations Treaty”) was unconstitutional. On May 24, 2012, the Supreme Court of Korea overturned the original ruling that recognized the effect of a Japanese court decision running against the core values of the Korean Constitution (i.e. forcible mobilization of Korean men and women during the colonial period viewed as a lawful act). These were historic decisions clearly reiterating that the victims’ rights to compensation―for illegalities against humanity involving the Japanese state power and other unlawful acts associated directly with its colonial rule―were not part of what was agreed on under the Basic Relations Treaty. In this paper, we discuss the limitations of and problems with lawsuits for “postwar compensation” filed in Japan, including the multiple “obstacles” of Japan’s failure to acknowledge the truth, the amount of time passed since those atrocities were committed, the lack of response or solution from the state, and political restraints. We then examine the 2010 Joint Statement from Korean and Japanese intellectuals who declared the 1910 Korea-Japan Annexation Treaty “already null and void,” followed by the ideological shift of the international community from nationalistic philosophy to human rights-centric thinking, and the 2001 Durban Declaration and Programme of Action which proclaimed cleansing the legacy of colonialism to be a historic mission. These rulings on Japan’s “colonial responsibility” have been denounced by the Japanese government, businesses and media as “politicized,” claiming that such responsibility was already fulfilled once and for all by the Korea-Japan Basic Relations Treaty. More recently, a lengthy register of colonial victims was found in the Korean Embassy to Japan. With this respect, Ihara Junichi, director general of the Asian and Oceanian Affairs Bureau at Japan’s Foreign Ministry, claimed the claims of the United States and other Allied powers was resolved with the 1951 San Francisco Peace Treaty; as for Korea which it did not fight a war against, he asserted that the Basic Relations Treaty, which was allegedly made to handle issues with the country’s “colonial rule,” put an end to its colonial responsibility. The Korean court decisions call for Japan’s compensation for its colonial injustices, or “illegalities against humanity involving the Japanese state power and other unlawful acts associated directly with its colonial rule,” while the Japanese government argues, “The Korea-Japan Basic Relations Treaty, signed as a separate postwar agreement on Japanese colonial rule, waived all the relevant rights to compensation.” In other words, the Japanese government claims that Korean courts made unfair and politicized decisions going against what was agreed upon between the two countries when individual victims’ rights to compensation for forced labor and other damages caused by Japanese colonial rule had already been addressed with the Basic Relations Treaty. It is on this basis that this paper that this paper reexamines the decisions on “colonial responsibility” as well as the arguments of its advocates and opponents. The Japanese government has had the normative recognition that, as the forced annexation of Korea and Japan in 1910 was made by the conclusion of the Korea-Japan Annexation Treaty which was legal under the international laws of the time, Japan’s forcible occupation of Korea and subsequent colonial rule made on this basis were also legitimate. It has denied its responsibility to compensate for illegalities against humanity involving its state power and other unlawful acts associated directly with its colonial rule; it has also been consistent in claiming that the conclusion of the Korea-Japan Basic Relations Treaty brought these issues to a complete end. Then comes the question: Was the Basic Relations Treaty actually intended to address issues with Japan’s “colonial rule,” as argued by Ihara Junichi? To answer this question, this paper empirically reviews the proceedings of the Japanese Diet from the conclusion of the Treaty in 1965 through the country’s first apology for its colonial rule in 1995. In the meeting of the Special Committee on Treaties and Agreements between Japan and the Republic of Korea on November 5, 1965, then-Prime Minister Sato said the 1910 Korea-Japan Annexation Treaty was lawfully concluded; Foreign Minister Shiina also stated that, with the conclusion of the 1965 Korea-Japan Basic Relations Treaty, the diplomatic protection of the two countries was waived while the compensation rights of individuals remained. On August 15, 1995, Prime Minister Murayama expressed his apology for Japan’s colonial rule and aggression. In the general session of the Upper House on October 5, however, he claimed the 1910 Annexation Treaty was entered into in a legally effective manner. In the meeting of the Upper House Budgetary Committee on August 27, Foreign Minister Yanai Shunji responded to a question by saying individual rights to compensation existed. Furthermore, the proceedings of the Japanese Diet―from the conclusion of the Korea-Japan Basic Relations Treaty in 1965 through Japan’s first apology for its colonial rule in 1995―hint that Japanese government officials have been unaware of the country’s standing as the assailant and thus have not recognized its “colonial responsibility.” Until former “comfort women” filed a lawsuit in the United States in 2000, they provided fairly consistent answers that diplomatic protection was “waived only partially.” In other words, they believed the Japanese government could not override individual rights to compensation. Against this backdrop, it would be fair to say that the Restitution claims to the government of Japan, prepared in September 1949 in regards to the reality of “colonial responsibility” that should have been incorporated into the Basic Relations Treaty, represented a rational demand for legitimate rights to recover colonial sacrifices―rather than a retaliation for penalizing Japan. With only one tenth of forced laborers reporting to the United States Army Military Government, the amount of compensation for damages and sacrifices caused by the forcible annexation of Japan and Korea and the subsequent Japanese colonial rule was estimated at 31.4 billion yen, or two billion dollars at the exchange rate of the times, which is comparable with the Economic Cooperation Fund of 1965. Japan’s colonial responsibility specified in the Restitution claims to the government of Japan was left unaddressed under the Korea-Japan Basic Relations Treaty as the Japanese government had no intention to fulfill such responsibility. Taking advantage of the United States’ Cold War strategy in East Asia, it believed its colonial rule over Korea was justifiable, viewing it as a “dispensation” for Koreans which helped modernize them. Focusing on “property” and “claims” as stipulated in Article 4, Paragraph (a) of the San Francisco Peace Treaty, the negotiations between Korea and Japan on postwar claims did not specify Japan’s responsibility for colonial rule. This, paradoxically, left “colonial responsibility” as an issue unresolved and to be therefore addressed under the Korea-Japan Basic Relations Treaty. In other words, the victims’ rights to compensation for illegalities against humanity involving the country’s state power and other unlawful acts associated directly with its colonial rule could hardly be seen as subject to the Korea-Japan Basic Relations Treaty. Since the conclusion of the Basic Relations Treaty, the Japanese government had consistently claimed that individual claims under the Treaty continued to exist. In 2000, however, its stance changed following a lawsuit filed in the United States by former “comfort women” for the Japanese troops, and Japanese courts have since made “politicized decisions” on this basis. Ihara Junichi’s claim that the Treaty was made to resolve the issue of Japan’s “colonial responsibility” mirrors the Japanese government’s stance. Released in 2010 as the centennial of forcible annexation between Korea and Japan, the Joint Statement of intellectuals from the two countries is the East Asian version of the 2001 Durban Declaration and Programme of Action. Getting the regional history right, it suggests, will lay the foundation for seeking a genuine process of historical reconciliation. Going beyond “negative peace” as a basic element of international laws premising an apology and compensation for colonial rule and war of aggression, we should now go for “positive peace” in which human dignity and rights are respected as universal values. This will make sure that another 50 years following the 50th anniversary of the Korea-Japan Basic Relations Treaty in 2015 serves as the starting point for working hand in hand to bring a East Asian peace community into reality.

한일청구권협정의 국제법적 문제점에 대한 재검토

도시환 ( Doh See-hwan ) 한국외국어대학교 법학연구소 2011 외법논집 Vol.35 No.4

Last year marked the centennial of Japan’s forced annexation of Korea. The occasion provided momentum for looking into the embedded causes of Korea-Japan conflicts during modern history and to find a solution to lingering disputes. It also served as a turning point in recognizing the historical task of our times and the call of justice. One of the most notable incidents in the centenary was a statement that the 1910 Annexation Treaty was null and void. The statement was jointly adopted by 1,118 Korean and Japanese intellectuals on July 28, 2010, ahead of the 65th anniversary of Korea’s Aug. 15 liberation from Japan. The statement, initiated by 214 intellectuals on May 10, was based on “historic justice” advocated by the signatories from both countries. However, then-Japanese Prime Minister Naoto Kan issued a statement on Aug. 10 saying that Korea was annexed by Japan against the Korean people’s will. But he said that the annexation treaty was legal. His remarks implied that the treaty might have been problematic on moral grounds, but it was effective from the standpoint of international law. As such, the Japanese government has long maintained a position that the treaty was legitimate. Such a stance was reflected in the 1965 Treaty of Basic Relations between South Korea and Japan which sought to tackle Japanese colonial rule and normalize bilateral ties. The problem is that the 1965 treaty was initialed without considering that the annexation treaty could be declared invalid. The year 2015 will mark the 50th anniversary of the 1965 treaty. However, the Japanese position on the annexation treaty remains a dispute to be settled in order to forge new relations between Korea and Japan. The main purpose of the 1965 treaty was to liquidate the Japanese colonial rule and normalize basic relations between Korea and Japan. The most important agenda was war reparations. Regrettably, the negotiations were not focused on how to compensate for damage inflicted upon Korea by Japan’s colonial rule. Instead, the negotiations put a stress on economic cooperation between the two nations with little regard to “historic justice,” reflecting the U.S.-led global strategy of ensuring security and economic stability amid the Cold War. I want to make three points in the perspective of international law because Japan refused to admit its legal responsibility for the liquidation of the colonial past, apart from moral obligations. The first point is that the negotiations paid little attention to war reparations and compensation for what was seen as illegal occupation and colonial rule based on the forced annexation treaty. Therefore, Japan’s provision of grants and loans to Korea became “independence bounty” or “economic aid.” During the negotiations, Korea could not raise the issue of compensations for Japan’s wartime atrocities such as “comfort women,” or sexual slaves mobilized for frontline Japanese soldiers during World War II. The nation also failed to hold Japan legally responsible for its international crimes. The second point concerns Korean victims’ individual rights to compensation for the damages and their suffering from colonial rule. These rights are a core part of human rights, which individuals cannot forfeit in the face of reparations agreements or diplomatic protection between states. Japan cannot deny the rights on claims for individual compensation through its domestic legislation, e.g. Law No. 144. It is worth noting a draft Convention of Diplomatic Protection adopted by the U.N. International Law Commission in its 58th session in 2006. The draft implied that it is not right to see infringements on human rights vested in individuals as the violation of rights of their state. The draft could bring a significant change in the traditional understanding of diplomatic protection that has led to the sacrifice of individual rights for the sake of nations. In this connection, the Constitutional Court of Korea made a landmark ruling on August 30, 2011 that it is the government’s duty to settle disputes over Japan’s refusal to compensate former “comfort women.” The decision carries significant implications as the court has expanded the scope of state obligations to better protect the basic rights of the people. We would like to establish correct history and seek reconciliation with Japan over this painful history. This task is part of resolving the remaining problem after the centennial of the annexation and before the 2015 observance of the golden jubilee of the normalization treaty. The Japanese government should realize that denial of its disgraced history of colonialism and militarism is tantamount to the negation of “historic justice” and the rejection of peace. It should join efforts to settle the fundamental problem of historical conflicts between the two neighbors in order to promote peace and co-prosperity in East Asia in the 21st century. We hope that 2015 will be a year that brings genuine reconciliation between Korea and Japan.

일제식민지책임 청산을 위한 한일조약체제의 과제

都時煥(Doh, See-Hwan) 효원사학회 2015 역사와 세계 Vol.- No.48

제2차 세계대전의 전후 및 광복 70년 그리고 한일협정 50년이 중첩된 ‘역사의 해’를 맞이했다. 지난 2010년 한일강제병합 100년의 시점에서 한일지식인 1,139명이 천명한 “1910년 한일병합조약 원천무효” 공동성명은 ‘식민주의의 역사적 종식’을 담은 2001년 더반선언의 동아시아버전으로서 올바른 역사의 정립을 통한 기반위에서 진정한 역사화해를 모색해 나가야 한다는 것이었다. 그것은 식민지배와 침략전쟁에 대한 사죄와 배상을 전제로 하는 국제법상의 기본적인 소극적 평화(negative peace)에서 나아가 오늘날 인류보편적 가치로서의 인간의 존엄성과 인권의 존중을 전제로 하는 적극적 평화(positive peace)를 도모함으로써 2015년 한일협정 반세기는 동아시아평화공동체를 함께 실현해가는 진정한 출발점으로서 기여할 수 있어야 한다는 것이다. 그러나 일본 정부는 일본에 의한 한국병합이 당시의 국제법상 합법적인 ‘한일병합조약’의 체결로 한국강점과 식민지배 모두 합법이라는 전제하에 일본의 국가권력이 관여한 반인도적 범죄와 식민지배와 직결된 불법행위에 대한 배상책임을 부정하며 1965년 한일협정을 통해 완결되었음을 주장하고 있다. 그러한 맥락에서 본고에서는 식민지책임 청산의 세계적 동향을 검토하고, 국가주의에 입각한 일본 정부와 사법부가 지속적으로 부정해 온 일본군‘위안부’와 일제강제징용 등 “일본의 국가권력이 관여한 반인도적 불법행위 및 식민지배와 직결된 불법행위”에 대한 한국 사법부의 일제식민지책임 판결과 한일조약체제의 역사적인 과제를 논의하였다. 따라서 일제식민지배 피해자에 대한 전쟁범죄로서 일본군‘위안부’와 일제강제징용 등 중첩적인 중대한 인권침해의 구제를 위한 국제법적 과제로는 한국 사법부의 역사적인 판결을 통해 천명하고 있는 바와 같이 인권, 정의 그리고 평화의 세 가지 시대정신을 정립하는 것이 되어야 할 것이다.