고대 지중해 세계 저승 관념의 등장과 변천

정기문(鄭技紋) 한국역사연구회 2021 역사와 현실 Vol.- No.121

Since Neanderthal buried their ancestors, Human Beings made and developed the concept of the other world. According to the concept of after life of Neanderthal, the dead lived continually in the tomb after the same mode of this world. About 3000 B.C. Mesopotamians made the concept of the other world. According to the epic of Gilgamesh the dead didn’t live in his tomb but went to the place where only the dead lived. The other world was a vague and dark place. It is Zoroastrianism that made the differentiation of the other world for the first time. According to the doctrine of Zoroastrianism man should be judged about his doings of this world. If he lived bad life he should go to the hell. Plato developed similar thought. He thought the dead be responsible for his doing in this world, and the worst be sentenced to go to the hell. But at these stage the differentiation of the other world was not complete. Zoroastrianism taught the hell was a temporary purification place. It is Judaism that made the differentiation of the other world complete. About second century B.C. Judaism developed the concept of eternal hell and thought all bad men should go to the hell. The early Christianity made the concept of hell popularized.

플리니우스의 기독교 박해

정기문 전북사학회 2022 전북사학 Vol.- No.64

The persecution of Pliny is a watershed in the policy of Roman Empire against Christians. The rule made by Pliny and Trajan was adopted as a basic principle by their followers. His proceedings are as follow. When the inhabitants of Bithynia-Pontus accused Christians, Pliny asked them if they were Christians. Those who answered affirmatively were sentenced to death. But those who denied that they were or ever had been Christians were required to offer incense and wine to image of emperor and also curse Christ. If they followed his command they were acquitted. And accusations without the accuser's names subscribed were not permitted. This paper examined why Pliny and Trajan persecuted Christians. Did they persecuted Christians because Christians committed crimes? Or did they persecuted Christians only because they believed in Christianity? If the former is the case the persecution of Plinius is a political one. If the latter is the case the persecution of Plinius is a religious one. Several acts of Christians were to be regarded as criminal crimes. They were in the habit of meeting on a certain fixed day before it was light, and sang alternately hymns to Christ. These acts were contrary to Roman laws. If Pliny persecuted Christians because of these acts, his persecution was a political one. But when Pliny judged Christians he recommended repeatedly Christians to apostate. When Christians repented and accomplished his command Pliny acquitted them. If Pliny regarded Christianity as criminal these acts was unnecessary. Therefore the persecution of Pliny was not a political but religious act. 이 논문은 플리니우스의 기독교 박해의 법적 근거는 무엇이었는지, 플리니우스가 기독교를 박해한 요인이 정치적인 것이었는지 아니면 종교적인 것이었는지를 다루었다. 정치적 박해로 볼 수 있는 여지가 있었다. 로마법은 야간 집회와 불법단체의 결성을 엄격히 금지하고 있었다. 그런데 기독교는 불법단체를 결성하였고, 야간 집회를 열었으며, 황제 숭배를 거부하는 등 로마제국의 권위에 도전하였다. 플리니우스가 이런 정치적 요소들을 심각하게 여겼으며, 그것들이 그의 기독교에 대한 태도를 결정하는데 크게 작용했음은 확실하다. 그러나 플리니우스의 박해를 정치적 박해로 규정할 수 없다. 플리니우스는 기독교도를 재판할 때 특정 죄목을 제시하지 않고, 단지 기독교를 믿는다는 이유만으로 사형에 처했다. 또한 플리니우스는 기독교도에게 참회의 기회를 주었으며 배교하기만 한다면 기꺼이 방면하였다. 정치적 사건의 경우 이런 일이 절대 일어날 수 없다. 따라서 플리니우스의 박해는 정치적 박해의 성격이 있기는 했지만 근본적으로는 종교적 박해이었다.

토마스 공동체의 활동 시기와 신앙의 독자성

정기문 한국서양고대역사문화학회 2019 서양고대사연구 Vol.55 No.-

The discovery of the Gospel of Thomas in the mid-twentieth century created a great sensation. This paper examines the time in which the Thomas Community was active and the identity of its faith. As a result, the following conclusions are obtained. First, much of the content of the Gospel of Thomas is likely to contain Jesus' original voice. But the Gospel of Thomas was finally completed in the mid-second century through several stages of editing. The community that produced this gospel originated in the Church of Jerusalem and they probably migrated to eastern Syria. Second, the Thomas Community was initially in partnership with the Johannine Community. The Gospel of John presents Thomas as a positive disciple. Considering the widespread circulation of the Gospel of Thomas and the Acts of Thomas produced by the Thomas community in the second and third century, the Thomas community was powerful and active until the third century. Third, salvation by one's own efforts which is the core of the Thomas community's theology was developed at the turn of the second century. If the Thomas Community had pursued the doctrine of salvation by one's own efforts since the establishment of the Community, the Gospel of John would not have presented him as a positive figure. 20세기 중반 토마스 복음서의 발견은 큰 반향을 일으켰다. 오랫동안 학자들이 기대하고 있던 어록 복음서가 발견되었고, 그 내용이 사복음서의 신학과 근본적으로 달랐기 때문이다. 이 논문은 토마스 복음서를 생산한 공동체의 실체와 그들의 신학을 살펴보았다. 그 결과 다음과 같은 결론을 얻었다. 첫 번째, 토마스 복음서는 여러 단계의 편집을 거쳐서 2세기 중반에 완성되었다. 토마스 복음서의 내용 가운데 상당 부분은 예루살렘 교회 시절에 정리된 것이기에 예수의 원래 음성을 담고 있을 가능성이 높다. 이 복음서를 생산한 공동체는 예루살렘 교회에서 기원하였고, 시리아 동부 아마도 에데사 지역에 자리 잡았을 것이다. 두 번째, 토마스 복음서를 생산한 공동체는 초기에 요한 공동체와 협력 하였다. 요한 복음서가 그를 긍정적인 인물로 제시하고 있는 것이 그 증거이다. 토마스 공동체가 생산한 토마스 복음서, 토마스 행전 등이 2-3세기 널리 유통되었다는 것을 고려하건대, 토마스 공동체는 세력이 컸고 3세기까지 활발하게 활동하였다. 세 번째, 토마스 공동체의 주요 교리는 토마스를 주요 사도로 제시한 것, 유대교 교리를 부정한 것, 자력 신앙이다. 이 가운데 특히 자력 신앙은 1세기 말이나 2세기 초 이후 토마스 공동체가 영지주의 신학을 수용하면서 발달하였다. 만약 토마스 공동체가 수립될 때부터 자력 신앙을 추구했다면, 요한 복음서가 그를 긍정적인 인물로 제시하지 않았을 것이다.

예수의 출생에 대한 고찰

정기문 동국대학교 동국역사문화연구소 2014 동국사학 Vol.56 No.-

I examined the sources that appeared in the New Testament on Jesus’ birth and lineage from the perspective of critical and historical research. The following conclusions were obtained. There are three candidates for the birthplace of Jesus, Bethlehem, Nazareth, Samaria. Typically the most preferred birthplace is Bethlehem, the authors of Matthew and Luke argued so. I concluded this thesis is false by three reasons. First, Mark didn’t say so. Second, because Bethlehem was prophesied as the birthplace of the Messiah in the Old Testament, Matthew and Luke chose it in terms of theology. Third, almost all people who lived in the period of Jesus thought Jesus was from Nazareth. The thesis that Jesus was from Samaria is based on the statements of the Gospel of John. Many Samaritans who participated in the movement of Jesus after the death of Jesus became key members of Johannine community. They claimed that Jesus was from Samaria. Therefore this thesis is a theological makeup. The claim that Jesus was a descendant of David don’t have any historical ground. If someone had claimed that he was a descendant of David, he would have lost his life. Because the rulers of Israel were not descendants of David, they would kill those who claimed the lineage of David. The descendants of David didn’t live any longer in the period of Jesus. Some people including the authors of Matthew and Luke thought Jesus as a descendant of David. But this thesis is a theological makeup. Considering other sources of early Christianity, we could confirm this fact. Mark and Pauline epistle gainsaid the argument. Also the fact that many people thought Mary was a descendant of David in 1-2century showed us that the genealogy of Jesus was not fixed but fluid. Therefore we conclude that the lineage of Jesus is an artifact. 예수의 출생과 혈통을 파악하는 것은 초기 기독교를 이해하는데 필수적인 요소임에도 불구하고 상대적으로 많은 관심을 받지 못하였다. 비판적인 태도를 견지하는 학자들이 예수의 출생과 혈통은 너무나 신화적인 것이라고 쉽게 단정하고, 깊은 논의를 진행하지 않았기 때문이다. 이 논문은 예수의 출생지와 혈통을 비판적 관점으로 재구성하고자 시도하였다. 그 결과 다음과 같은 결론을 얻을 수 있었다. 먼저 신약 성경에는 예수의 출생지 후보지로 베들레헴, 나자렛, 사마리아가 나온다. 일반적으로 가장 선호되는 출생지는 베들레헴이지만, 이는 마태복음과 누가복음의 저자가 만들어낸 허구이다. 예수의 출생지는 나자렛으로 판단되는데, 사복음서에서 모두 예수가 나자렛 사람이라고 불렸는데, 나자렛이 작고 신학적으로 무의미한 도시였기 때문에 의도적으로 예수의 출생지를 조작할 필요가 없기 때문이다. 예수가 베들레헴에서 출생했다는 이야기는 신학적인 이유에서 창작된 것으로 판단되는데, 베들레헴이 메시아의 출생지로 구약에 예언되어 있기 때문이다. 마태복음과 누가복음이 전하는 베들레헴 출생설에 대한 설명이 상이할 뿐만 아니라 두 복음서보다 먼저 쓰인 마가복음에 베들레헴 출생에 대한 암시가 전혀 없다는 사실이 이를 입증한다. 한편 예수가 사마리아 사람이었다는 주장은 예수 사후 기독교 운동에 참가한 사마리아 사람들이 만들어낸 이야기라고 생각된다. 이런 이야기가 존재한다는 것은 초기 기독교 시절에 예수의 출생지가 명확히 고정된 것이 아니라 유동적이었음을 의미한다. 예수가 다윗의 후손이었다는 주장은 역사적으로 성립하기 힘들다. 예수 사후에 예수의 혈통에 대한 논의가 진행되었는데, 시기적으로 일찍 기록된 마가복음과 바울 서신은 그렇게 생각하는 자들에게 ‘틀렸다’는 메시지를 분명히 보냈다. 그렇지만 예수를 다윗의 후손이라고 생각하는 신자들이 존재했으며, 그들은 예수의 족보를 만들어서 예수가 다윗의 후손이라고 주장하고자 하였다. 그런 노력은 여러 사람에 의해서 다양하게 진행되었다. 이 사실은 마태복음과 누가복음의 족보가 상이한 것, 예수의 혈통을 아버지인 요셉 쪽으로 계수할 것인지, 아니면 마리아 쪽으로 계수할 것인지에 대해서 이견이 있었다는 사실에서 확인된다.

손홍규론: 기억하기, 사랑의 윤리학

정기문(Jung, Ki-Mun) 동남어문학회 2011 동남어문논집 Vol.1 No.32

Throughout human history the division of the subject-self and object-other has maintained the expansion and reproduction of systems of violence. In the current order, the modern subject continues to hold dominance over its object. Only when this division is destabilized, are there possibilities for equality in communication. Son Honggyu's fiction does not subscribe to this standardized division of the subject and object. In his stories there occurs an opportunity for liberation. The settings of these works fan out from the Noreang Mountain Range as the author focuses on possibilities for the future. The reader finds that consciousness of time apparent in this fiction corresponds with the understanding of time of the contemporary human. This paper analyzes this correspondence, focusing on "the other" in Son Honggyu's Age of Demons, The Young Doctor Jang Giryeo, and Islamic Butchers. These novels particularly delve into possibilities for dismantling the dichotomy of self and other through their representations of love, ethics and revolution. First formal aspects of the work Age of Demons, "Character name( )" and hybrid strategy is having in this work and they look at the impact, the country and farmers have covered some of the implications of having a fight. This work is suppressed, hidden events of the past and the present case absurd world overcome nest, an attempt to rebuild a new world is remarkable. In the next text The Young Doctor Jang Giryeo that I analyze for about the ethics of responsibility. People in work they are suffering with the pain of the other, it put them to convert the mine, the pain of others, were called. Finally, via text Islamic Butchers that through the repressive ideology appeared as an emblem of national criticism, and criticism of racism and then after of the concept of love. As noted earlier, based on the equality of all this love, rather than stay in an ego 'is its own type', ie, the venture is meant to embody breakouts.

디오클레티아누스 황제의 최고가격령

정기문 한국서양사학회 1999 西洋史論 Vol.63 No.1

로마제정의 조세제도 정비와 그 한계

정기문(Jung Gi Moon) 韓國西洋古典學會 1999 西洋古典學硏究 Vol.14 No.-

기독교는 언제 유대교로부터 분리되었는가?

정기문 ( Gi Moon Jung ) 역사교육학회 2012 역사교육논집 Vol.48 No.-

According to the traditional and common explanation Christianity was founded by Jesus. When he was born, proclaimed the Gospel and resurrected, a new era of world began. The old religion, Judaism lost its value. The new religion, Christianity appeared as a new hope of Human Being. But most of scholars with critical mind do not agree to this explanation. According to the arguments of these scholars, although Jesus tried to reform Judaism giving new perspective to the matter of Law and temple, he didn`t break down the boundaries of Judaism. This paper examined the development of early Christianity to find the birth moment of Christianity as an independent religion. Accepting the critical study of modern scholars I did not view the life of Jesus as birth moment of Christianity. But we cannot deny that the life of Jesus made the great energy to create a movement which was to develop into Christianity. He attacked the established power and the institution of temple and sacrifice. And he proposed the movement for the kingdom of God to prepare the impending eschatology. There would be no discrimination among the people of Israel in the kingdom of God. In this point we can say that Jesus carried out a revolutionary reform. But He didn`t imagine to abolish the Judaism. He thought that he perfected the Judaism. The Apostolic Council of Jerusalem decided to permit Gentiles not to observe the Law. It is impossible for Jews to approve the believers who didn`t observe the Law. There were no Jewish sect who argued the necessity to abolish the Law. In this point the Apostolic Council of Jerusalem was a revolutionary event. Nevertheless we cannot say that the Apostolic Council of Jerusalem established Christianity as an independent religion. Because the Apostolic Council of Jerusalem did not abolish the discrimination against Gentiles. After the Apostolic Council of Jerusalem Jews and Gentiles could not share the meal. Paul, the Apostle of Gentiles had the conviction to abolish the discrimi -nation against Gentiles. But the Jerusalem Church did not want to abolish the discrimination against Gentiles. When the conflict between Paul and the Jerusalem Church took place, Peter and the believers of Antioch Church took parts with the Jerusalem Church. Therefore Paul left the Antioch Church to proclaim the Gospels independently. He succeeded to found churches who followed only the teachings of Paul. These churches abolished completely the Laws and the discrimination against Gentiles. In this point we can say that the churches of Paul established Christianity as an independent religion.

후기로마제국사 연구에 끼친 고고학의 영향

정기문(Gi Moon Jung) 한국서양사학회 2001 西洋史論 Vol.71 No.1

The Influence of Archaeology on the Study of the Late Roman Empire. Since the era of Renaissance the studies on the late Roman Empire has emphasized that it had been in a state of decline and fall. Gibbon and his followers insisted that the settlements and lands had been abandoned, the independent farmers ruined, the quantity of trades decreased, and the cities deserted. This thesis has found its sources in literatures and in laws. But in the 1970s Brown and others has challenged this Gibbon`s thesis. They argued that the era of the late Roman Empire had not been a period of decline but change. The thesis was predicated on the assumption that the late Roman Empire had both economic stability and vitality. However, because the document sources were too scarce to prove this assumption, it was necessary to utilize the recent archaeological investigations on lands, settlements, wares, and cities. According to the results of this examination, in contrast to the traditional view, the agriculture of Roman Empire in the forth century made an stable growth. Furthermore, the small peasantry were the major group of economic activities in those days. While it was indisputable that the decline of agriculture in the West had begun in the late forth century, it should be noted that the very decline was limited only to the frontier of the West. In the East, the growth of agriculture had continued. Commercial activities continued actively in the 4-5th century. The remains of wares and lamps which were unearthed in Rome, Taracco, and Ravena demonstrated the continuation of trades. While the trades between Rome and other provinces decreased, those between Spain, North Africa and the East increased. Therefore, the traditional view which did not consider this change of trade route should be redressed. The cities of the late Rome Empire got through the transformation in their roles and semblances. Though lots of cities in the West declined, in particular, on the frontier area, the extent of decline was not so serious as many scholars have usually estimated. And the cities of the East continued to flourish in the 4-6th century. The vigorous archaeological research produced many evidences that were enough to challenge the traditional view. But lots of scholars hesitated to authorize the results of this new methodology, for they have had a totalistic view on the late Roman Empire. At first they tried to reconcile the results of recent archaeological research with the traditional view. Such scholars are, most notably, Hopkins and Millet. But now we have to try to make a novel perspective on the late Roman Empire, for there are too many evidences which are incompatible with the traditional view.

초기 기독교와 종말 신앙

정기문 ( Jung¸ Gi-moon ) 한국서양사학회 2020 西洋史論 Vol.0 No.147

슈바이처 이래 예수가 철저한 종말론자였다는 이해가 널리 수용되었다. 역사적 예수에 대한 제 3의 탐구를 수행한 크로산 등은 이 주장을 반박하였다. 이 논문은 예수 시대 종말론을 살펴봄으로써 예수가 종말론자였다는 주장을 확인하고, 예수 이후 고대 말기까지 기독교의 종말신앙이 어떻게 전개되었는지를 역사적 관점에서 살펴보았다. 기독교 문서 가운데서 가장 먼저 작성된 바오로 서간과 마르코 복음서에서 예수는 철저한 종말론자로 등장한다. 예수가 그의 당대에 종말이 이루어질 것이라고 선전하였지만, 그가 죽고 나서 수십 년이 흘러도 종말이 이루어지지 않았다. 기독교 지도자들은 이 문제를 해명할 필요를 느꼈다. Q 복음서, 루카 복음서 등에 이미 종말에 대한 해명이 등장한다. 1세기 말이 되면 기독교 신자들의 동요는 더욱 거세어졌다. 많은 신자들이 창조 이후 아무것도 변화하지 않았다고 불평하면서 교회를 떠났다. 이에 기독교 지도자들은 교회를 떠난 자들은 지옥에 떨어질 것이라고 위협하는 한편 천 년 하루 셈법을 도입하였다. 이에 의하면 종말은 천지가 창조된 후 6,000년이 지나고 이루어진다. 이후 기독교 지도자들은 구약 성경을 이용하여 천지가 창조된 때를 계산하여 종말의 때를 제시하곤 했다. 500년, 800년, 1,000년을 비롯하여 여러 후보가 제시되었지만 모두 허위로 판명되었다. 그렇지만 그후에도 오랫동안 새로운 계산이 등장하였다. One of the key events within Christian theology centers around Jesus ending the world’s existence in a series of catastrophic events, with one of the main events focusing on the judgement of everyone’s souls. Since the time of Jesus’ death, Christians have strongly pursued this ‘other world,’ adhering to religious piety and actively looking towards the imminent end of the world. Subsequently, believers who strongly believed in this ending of the world have caused great scandals through their actions, with this paper examining how eschatology has had a vital effect on the Christian faith and its believers. In the days of Jesus, belief in eschatology held strong and prevalent influence in the Jewish community. Several sects believed the world would face a catastrophic end, and many scholars attempted to calculate the world’s last day by studying the books of prophecies. Influenced by this thinking, Jesus taught that the end of the world would come true within the time of his generation, and after his death, Christians formed the Church of Jerusalem, believing in this imminent end of the world. Later in the first century, Christian leaders argued for the existence of many signals which would indicate the beginning of the end, and supported the belief that Jesus had predicted that the end would come in the distant future, as opposed to within the present generation. However as time went by, the agitation felt by Christian communities continued to persist. As a result, Christian leaders adopted a new strategy, and argued that one millennium is similar to one day for God. Several Christian leaders, on the other hand, were taught that the history of the Earth will end when destruction comes after 6,000 years. As this argument became more widely accepted after the middle of the second century, Christians began studying the Old Testament in order to find out the exact date at which the heaven and earth were created. The 500th, 800th and 1,000th years A.D. were presented as major candidates dates, but at each date, expectations remained unfulfilled. Even so, there have been continued attempts to calculate the day of the end up until even this present day. (Kunsan University / gmjung@kunsan.ac.kr)