인공지능에 의한 발명의 발명자성에 대한 소고

이상호 한국지식재산학회 2022 産業財産權 Vol.- No.71

Under Korean patent laws, a patent right is initially vested in an inventor, and the justification of the patent right needs to be reviewed under the consideration of whether the recipient can be qualified as an inventor. This paper reviews three philosophical justifications for patent rights and applies them to artificial-intelligence-generated inventions and concludes that an inventor should be a natural person, and artificial intelligence's inventorship is not justified. First, under Locke's labor theory, every human being has property rights to his own person from birth and can expand his ownership, including patent rights, through his manual or mental labor. Artificial intelligence is a man-made object and does not have any basis for expanding property rights therefrom through labor as it is bereft of any innate rights whatsoever to own itself. Under Hegel's personality theory, a natural person has "the right to direct his will upon any object" and is a bearer of free will, which also can be a basis of the right to a patent. Free will is not merely the act of calculation, it's a reflection of Being itself. Artificial intelligence cannot have such self-purpose and dignity as human beings have and thus cannot be justified as an inventor. Under Bentham's Utilitarian view, it is presumed that an individual responds to incentives, and that this response benefits society. However, artificial intelligence lacks any motivation to devise an invention seeking a monopoly. One might argue that if artificial intelligence's inventorship is denied and no natural persons are qualified as an inventor and no one would be able to reap the benefits arising from the invention generated by artificial intelligence. It might be concerning as this will diminish scientists' motivation to develop the technology and eventually lead to a failure to maximize the utility in society as a whole. However, scientists' efforts should be protected only to the extent appropriate to their contributions. No one should be granted the rights to an invention that he or she has not contributed to. Otherwise, once the artificial intelligence technology reaches AGI (artificial general intelligence) or ASI (artificial superintelligence), only small number of owners would enjoy the limitless fruits of such artificial intelligence. Additionally, once artificial intelligence gains legal status, it can expand its rights boundlessly in society, which would pose a menace to humankind. In these cases, the inventorship of artificial intelligence should be denied under the Utilitarian view as it fails to maximize its utility in society. Accordingly, it is submitted that only natural persons are eligible for an inventor. If artificial intelligence generates an invention with no human contribution, the invention becomes the property of the public. However, if a natural person's contribution is insufficient to satisfy the inventorship requirement, it may be necessary to expand the scope of inventorship to include partial contributions from natural persons. In this regard, the work for hire doctrine under copyright provides a hint on how to enlarge the boundary of inventorship. It is suggested that a natural person employer who defines a problem and plans to find the solution using artificial intelligence, as a creative employee, should be credited as an inventor under the ‘invention for hire’ doctrine even if his contribution to a conception of an invention does not meet the current inventorship requirements. 특허법에 따르면, 특허권은 원시적으로 발명자에게 주어지므로 특허권의 정당성을 논함에 있어 권리를 받는 자가 발명자로 인정되어 권리를 누리는 것이 합당한지 검토해야 할 필요가 있다. 본 고는 특허권에 대한 세 가지 철학적 정당성을 검토하고 인공지능에 의한 발명에 적용하여 오직 자연인만 발명자로 인정받을 수 있으며 인공지능의 발명자성은 정당화되지 못한다고 결론 내렸다. 먼저, 로크의 노동이론에 따르면 모든 인간은 생득적으로 자기 자신에 대한 재산권적 권리를 가지며 특허권을 포함해 자신의 정신적 육체적 노동을 통해 소유권을 확장해 나갈 수 있다. 하지만 인공지능은 사람이 만든 객체에 불과하여 자기 자신으로부터 노동을 통해 확장할 수 있는 어떤 내재적 권리의 기반을 가지고 있지 못하다. 헤겔의 인격 이론에 따르면 자연인은 자신의 의지를 객체에 투영할 수 있는 권리를 가지며 특허권의 근거가 되는 자유의지의 담지자이기도 하다. 자유의지는 단순한 정보의 선택을 의미하지 않으며 존재 자체로부터 나오는 자기 자신의 목적의 투영이다. 인공지능은 인간과 같은 자기 목적성이나 존엄성을 가지고 있지 못하므로 발명자로 정당화될 수 없다. 벤담의 공리주의에 따르면, 인간은 유인에 반응하는 존재로 상정되며 이러한 인간의 반응이 사회의 유용을 증대시키는 역할을 한다. 하지만, 인공지능은 이러한 유인에 반응하여 발명의 독점권을 추구하는 존재가 아니다. 혹자는 만약 인공지능의 발명자성이 부정되고 발명자로 인정될 수 있는 자연인이 존재하지 않는 경우, 누구도 인공지능이 발명한 결과물에 대한 유익을 취할 수 없게 될 것이고, 이는 결국 인공지능을 연구하는 과학자들의 사기를 저하해 사회 전체 유익이 최대화되지 못한다는 위험을 불러올 수 있다고 염려할 수 있다. 하지만 과학자들의 노력은 그에 상응하는 정도의 보호만 받을 필요가 있다. 누구도 자신이 발명하지 않은 것에 대한 권리를 주장할 수는 없다. 인공지능기술이 초인공지능 내지는 강인공지능에 이르게 되면 소수의 사람이 인공지능이 개발한 열매를 누릴 수 있는 위험이 있다. 또한, 인공지능이 자신의 법률적 지위를 가지게 되면 특허권은 자신의 발명에 대한 권리를 사회에서 무한대로 확장할 수 있는 근거가 될 수가 있고, 이는 인류가 위협될 수 있다. 이 두 경우 모두 인공지능을 발명자로 인정하는 것은 부정되어야 하는데 이는 공리주의적 관점에서 사회 전체적 유용성을 최대화하지 못하기 때문이다. 따라서, 자연인만 발명자로 인정받아야 하며, 만약 인간의 개입 없이 인공지능에 의한 발명이 이루어지면 이는 결국 공공재로 취급되어야 한다. 그러나 자연인이 인공지능을 사용하며 발명에 이르는 과정을 기획한 경우의 비록 발명의 착상에 대한 발명자의 기여가 비록 발명자 요건을 만족시키는 정도는 아니라 하더라도 발명자성의 범위를 보다 확대하여 발명자성을 부여하는 것이 합리적이라 하겠다. 이와 관련해서 저작권법의 업무상 저작물 제도는 발명자성의 외연을 넓히는 단초를 제공한다. 본 고는 자연인 사용자가 문제를 정의하고 해결책을 찾기 위해 인공지능을 창의적 근로자로 사용한 경우 해당 자연인의 발명 착상에 대한 기여가 비록 특허법에서 요구하는 발명자성에 미치지 못한다고 하더라도 업무상 발명(invention for hire)제도를 통해 발명자로 인정해줄 것을 제안한다.

인공적 자율성에 기반한 예술 작품 연구 : 사이버네틱스와 발생 예술을 중심으로

유원준(Yoo Wonjoon) 한국문화융합학회 2018 문화와 융합 Vol.40 No.2

예술에서 인공성의 요소는 현재에 이르기까지 순수 예술과는 일정 정도 이상의 간극을 지닌 특성으로 간주되어 왔다. 이러한 현상은 사진을 비롯하여 영상(영화) 및 새로운 기술 매체들과 결합한 예술 형식이 등장하고 있는 최근에도 발견할 수 있는데 이는 예술이 지닌 순수성의 원천을 인공성과 대비되는 자연성에서 파악하고자 하는 의도에서 찾아볼 수 있다. 특히 시각 예술의 경우 이미지를 통한 재현의 역사로서 ‘자연적 대상 - 인공적 재현물’이라는 이분법적 구도를 형성해 왔다. 과거 사진은 자연적 인간 주체의 시선이 담겨있지 않은 인공적 기술 매체에 의해 파생된 이미지로 간주되어 예술의 범주에서 소외되었으며 영화 역시 우리의 눈을 현혹시키는 마법과 같은 인공적 기술로서 인식되곤 하였다. 물론 이러한 구분은 기술 매체가 지닌 인공성을 예술의 도구적 특성으로 한정시키며 부분적인 것이 되었다. 즉, 작품을 구성하거나 제작하는 형식으로서의 인공적 기술 매체는 예술의 한 부분으로 인정되었으나 이는 예술 자체의 인공성에 관한 수용은 아니었다. 여전히 예술의 영역에서 인공성은 부차적이며 도구적 수준에서 이해될 수밖에 없었다. 그러나 최근 과학-기술-산업계에서 주요한 이슈로 제기되고 있는 인공적 영역, 특히 자연적 인간 주체의 고유한 특성으로 분석해 오던 지능과 생명, 기억과 인식의 과정이 인공적 단위에서 발생할 수 있음은 예술의 영역에서도 중요한 논의의 출발점이 되고 있다. 인공지능이 인간의 영역을 대체하고 심지어 초월하려는 시도가 창의성을 근간으로 하는 예술의 영역에서도 유효할 것이냐는 문제제기가 그것이다. 본 논문은 이러한 맥락에서 인공적 창의성을 가능하게 만드는 인공의 프로그램 영역이 예술 작품에서 어떻게 나타나고 있는지를 분석하며 그로부터 예술의 인공적 자율성의 근본적 요소에 접근해보고자 한다. 또한 이러한 인공적 자율성의 근간에 인간과 유사한 직관 및 기억의 요소들이 내포되어 있음을 파악하는 것이 주요한 목적이다. From past and present, artificiality in art is regarded as a character which have a distance of fine arts. These streams are found when art-form collaborated with new technology like photograph and cinema appeared in the recent world. It is because there is an ideology that purity of art comes from not artificiality but in nature. Especailly, in visual art, have formed the dichotomous structure of ‘natural object-artificial representation’ as a history of representation through image. In the past, photograph is neglected from category of art by reason of generative image made in artificial technology without human subject’s gaze and cinema also has been recognized as an artificial technology like magic which dazzles us. Of course, this classification define artificiality of technology in instrumental character became a small part of appreciation. In other words, artificial- technological media as a form of constituting and making artworks is was recognized but this is not a certification of art about artificiality. Artificiality in the art scene is still secondary character and appreciated as a instrument. But in these days, the fact that artificiality generate intelligence, life, memory and awareness which are regarded as human-subject’s own traits became a starting point for the discussion in the arts. The problem is that artificial intelligence try to replace and beyond human’s own area and it can be a meaningful point in the art scenes. This study try to analyze how artificial program will appear in the art scene and from this point approach radical element of artificial autonomy. Also main purpose of this study is understanding the implicit meaning of artificial autonomy and the fact that it can be involved institution and elements of memory like a human-being.

여수 주변해역의 인공어초 사후관리 현황과 발전방향

추효상 외 전남대학교 수산과학연구소 2008 수산과학연구소논문집 Vol.17 No.2

It is important to manage artificial fish reefs with installation for restoration. we made survey for installation's condition(location, amount etc.), fish community and amount of fishing net around installation area(6,142ha) of artificial fish reefs with side scan sonar and diving in Yeosu Coast of Korea. Number of the total installed and found artificial reefs is defined 46,872 and 39,003 (83.2%) artificial reefs, respectively. Observed artificial reefs is dominant dice type(19,663) and is the most of them in Geomun and Keumo islands. In addition, biological monitoring is shown that it is composed of fouling or settlement of marine communities in most of the artificial reefs. Most marine wastes around artificial reefs area are sort of the fishing gear such as net, rope, and fish trap. Also, marine wastes around artificial reefs are totally 41.82 ton less than 40 m depth in Yeosu.

Improvement artificial-feeding strategy of common marmoset triplets in Seoul National University Hospital

Joo-Il Kim,JIna Kwak,Hyun-Jin Lim,Byeong-Cheol Kang 한국실험동물학회 2021 한국실험동물학회 학술발표대회 논문집 Vol.2021 No.7

The common marmoset, Callithrix jacchus, is a precious animal resource for biomedical fields such as toxicology, obstetrics gynecology, neuroscience and translational research. Besides, they have been widely used in developmental biology, because of shorter gestation period and prolific breeding compared to the old-world monkey. Common marmosets usually give birth to twins or triplets rather than the singleton or quadruplets. However, it is difficult for the mother to raise more than two, because she can’t produce enough milk to feed and has only two nipples, thus one of the triplets without parental care, usually loses body weight or dies within short period due to the malnutrition and hypothermia. Therefore, the artificial feeding is inevitable to save infant marmoset from the growth failure or death. In this study, we improved artificial feeding strategies and compared body weight gain of infant marmoset between previous report and Seoul National University Hospital (SNUH) data. Previous report suggested that one of the triplets was isolated from their parents and fostered during every 24 hours in the incubator. Although it was a new paradigm of artificial feeding with high survival rate, infant marmosets can learn how to achieve food and water intake on their own through interaction with their family members. For this reason, we fed all of the triplets and reintroduced to their family right away after artificial feeding, so they can spend most time with their family members rather than the incubator. Our recipe of artificial feeding based on a commercial infant formula powder (Absolute 1, Maeil Dairies Co, Korea) and VitaminD3 (Naturalplus, Canada) for 60 days after birth. The birth weight of SNUH marmosets (30.5g ±3.09, n=30) is 6.2% higher than reference marmosets (28.7g ±6.2, n=9) and the body weight gain of SNUH marmosets is higher than the reference marmosets as the artificial feeding progresses. We suggested an effective artificial feeding method that can increase the marmoset growth as well their socialization by interaction with their family

테크놀로지로 유사자연 현상을 표현한 설치작품에 관한 연구 - Tent, Gong을 중심으로 -

신은주 ( Eunjoo Shin ) 한국디자인트렌드학회 2016 한국디자인포럼 Vol.51 No.-

연구배경 예술에서 자연은 오랜 탐구의 대상으로서, 과학 원리를 기반으로 유사자연현상은 관람자 참여의 감각적 상호작용을 통해 설치작품으로 표출되어 왔다. 이는 테크놀로지의 발달로 자연에 대해 보다 다양한 시각으로 접근하고 자연과 인간을 넘어서 기술과의 관계로까지 확장하여 새로운 의미를 제시하고 있다. 연구방법 테크놀로지를 이용하여 자연현상과 상호작용을 하며 더 강하게 몰입하고 인지하게 하는 상호반응형 설치작품과 이론적 배경을 고찰하고, 사례 연구로써 자연의 불확실성을 안개와 소리로 드러낸 인터랙티브 설치작품인 텐트, 공(Tent, Gong)을 통해 인간, 자연현상, 공간과 미디어 테크놀로지의 관계의 의미를 분석한다. 연구결과 안개로 채워진 길고 좁은 공간의 양쪽 끝에 한 사람이 지나갈 수 있는 텐트 유닛이 설치된 텐트, 공은 관람자에 의해 변하는 유사자연 현상을 드러낸다. 관람자가 자유롭게 거닐며 텐트 유닛을 돌아 나오면, 텐트 유닛의 꼭대기에 매달린 공악기에서 굵고 낮은 소리가 울리며 주변은 하얗게 안개로 뒤덮인다. 관람자는 소리로써 자신의 움직임을 인식하지만 안개로 인해 시각적인 확인이나 공간감을 느끼기는 어렵다. 하지만, 안개는 공 악기의 강한 울림으로 생기는 공기의 흐름을 보여주는 매개 역할을 하며 관람자는 공기의 이동을 시각과 촉각으로 느낄 수 있다. 또한, 강한 소리의 울림은 공간 전체에 퍼져나가 안개로 가려져 보이지 않는 다른 관람자의 존재와 공간을 청각적으로 인식한다. 결론 작품에서는 유사한 자연현상을 특정 공간에서 경험적 상황으로 제시하여 관람자가 쉽게 지나치는 순간에 감각적으로 집중하게 한다. 관람자는 인공적으로 제시된 자연 상황과의 공감각적인 반응을 통해 인공적으로 재생산되었음을 알면서도 실재의 자연 현상보다 더 강하게 몰입한다. 예술에서 기술, 과학과 설치미술의 융합으로 자연에 대한 탐구는 실재의 경험보다 더 몰입감이 강한 경험적 상황으로 제시되어 자연, 인간과 환경 공간에 대한 인식의 변화 가능성을 나타낸다. Background Nature is the subject explored in art history and artificial natural phenomena have been represented in installation works through the sensory interaction between works and participants, caused by scientific bases. It suggests new approach of the relationship extended to technology issue beyond the human and nature issues with developed technologies. Methods This paper reviews the theoretical background and related installations that participants can strongly concentrate on the interaction with artificial nature phenomena generated by media technologies. It also suggests Tent, Gong exploring for the uncertainty of nature through sounds and fog, as a case study. From a case study, the relationship between man, nature, space and media technologies are analyzed. Result Tents, Gong that consists of two tent units that only one participant can pass through at the end of the long, narrow space filled with white fog provides artificial nature interacting with participants. When the participants pass through the tent units, very low and heavy sound is played from the chinese instrument, gong hanging on the top of the tent units and white fog are filled around them. Participants are able to be aware of their movement by not visually but sound and more, it is hard to feel a sense of space because of thick fog. However, in the other hands, participants can recognize the movement of air by visual and tactile senses because fog becomes intermediate material showing the flow of air caused by the strong sound vibration Also, it spreads into the whole space and helps for a participant to recognizes the existence of the others who are hided behind the fog audibly. Conclusion Tent, Gong makes participants to concentrate on the moment they easily pass by presenting the empirical situation of artificial natural phenomenon in an indoor space. Moreover, participants are absorbed in artificial natural phenomena more strongly than the real one as knowing that the interactive natural phenomena in the work, are reproduced artificially. In this way, it presents the new way of perceiving the natural, human and environmental space to explore the nature going through more immersive experience of artificial natural phenomena, realized by the convergence of technology, science and art installation than the real situation.

화분매개곤충과 인공수분이 ‘신고’ 배의 과실품질과 수익성에 미치는 영향

이경용,임순희,서호진,김선영,윤형주 한국유기농업학회 2016 韓國有機農業學會誌 Vol.24 No.4

We compared the fruit set and the quality of the ‘Niitaka’ pear (Pyrus pyrifolia Nakai) among flowers pollinated by two bee species (Apis mellifera and Bombus terrestris) and pollinated artificial. The artificial pollination rate was 1.3 to 1.9 times higher than the bee pollination rate. Moreover, the artificially pollinated flowers produced fruit that was 5 to 10% higher in weight, 2 to 3% larger in size, and had a higher fruit shape index (L/D) than fruit pollinated by the bees. On economic analysis, net profit from insect pollinator was 93.5 to 97.1% of net profit from artificial pollination. Therefore, artificial pollination is more efficient than bee pollination in ‘Niitaka’ pear. However, regarding fruit quality and net profit, these results suggest that bee pollination can be an good alternative to artificial pollination in ‘Niitaka’ pear.

화분매개곤충과 인공수분이 ‘신고’ 배의 과실품질과 수익성에 미치는 영향

이경용,임순희,서호진,김선영,윤형주 한국유기농업학회 2016 韓國有機農業學會誌 Vol.24 No.4

We compared the fruit set and the quality of the ‘Niitaka’ pear (Pyrus pyrifolia Nakai) among flowers pollinated by two bee species (Apis mellifera and Bombus terrestris) and pollinated artificial. The artificial pollination rate was 1.3 to 1.9 times higher than the bee pollination rate. Moreover, the artificially pollinated flowers produced fruit that was 5 to 10% higher in weight, 2 to 3% larger in size, and had a higher fruit shape index (L/D) than fruit pollinated by the bees. On economic analysis, net profit from insect pollinator was 93.5 to 97.1% of net profit from artificial pollination. Therefore, artificial pollination is more efficient than bee pollination in ‘Niitaka’ pear. However, regarding fruit quality and net profit, these results suggest that bee pollination can be an good alternative to artificial pollination in ‘Niitaka’ pear.

Triboelectric electronic-skin based on graphene quantum dots for application in self-powered, smart, artificial fingers

Xu, Zhongwei,Wu, Chaoxing,Li, Fushan,Chen, Wei,Guo, Tailiang,Kim, Tae Whan Elsevier 2018 Nano energy Vol.49 No.-

<P><B>Abstract</B></P> <P>The development of electronic-skin (e-skin) with artificial tactile-perception is crucial for emerging artificial-intelligence systems. However, considering the relatively simple function of existing e-skins, their performances still have much room for improvement. Here, a cuttable, transparent, stretchable, and lightweight e-skin that functions on the basis of the triboelectric effect is demonstrated. Well-designed micro-gaps are introduced to make the e-skin respond sensitively to various mechanical stimulations, including pressing, stretching, folding, and twisting. Ag nanowires coated with graphene quantum dots are employed as the electrode, as well as the friction layer, to increase the sensitivity to external mechanical stimulations. Self-powered, smart, artificial fingers with tactile sensation to monitor the actions of the fingers were fabricated to demonstrate the potential application of our newly developed e-skin. The architecture and the material system of the device demonstrated in this work will promote the development of human-machine interfaces and intelligent machines.</P> <P><B>Highlights</B></P> <P> <UL> <LI> E-skins on the basis of the triboelectric effect are demonstrated. </LI> <LI> The e-skin responds sensitively to various mechanical stimulations. </LI> <LI> Graphene quantum dot-coated Ag nanowires are employed to increase the sensitivity to the mechanical stimulations. </LI> <LI> Self-powered, smart, artificial fingers based on the e-skins are demonstrated. </LI> </UL> </P> <P><B>Graphical abstract</B></P> <P>[DISPLAY OMISSION]</P>

Redundancy Elimination: The Case of Artificial Languages

Isabella Chiari 세종대학교 언어연구소 2007 Journal of Universal Language Vol.8 No.2

This paper discusses how artificial languages deal with redundancy at the theoretical level of planning and in their actual textual manifestations. After a brief introduction to the notion of redundancy in linguistics and information theory, we propose a new definition, under the light of which we observe diferent expressions in artificial languages, mostly Esperanto. Redundancy is strictly connected to predictability, uneven frequencies, functional asymmetries and syntagmatic constraints. In natural languages it represents a constitutive principle of comunication, being present in all semiotic systems, including animal communication. What happens in artificial languages? Is redundancy expression a topic of discussion in language planning? How does it manifest in languages like Esperanto? A review of some of the major issues in language design is presented, underlining which features of redundancy can be eliminated and which are constitutive of any language, whether natural or artificial. Redundancy of graphemic systems, distributional redundancy of phonotactics, allomorphy, agreement and government as expressions of functional redundancy, and word order distributional properties will be considered as key manifestations of redundancy, observing how they are portrayed in planned languages.

인위성의 비판: 모리스의 『노웨어에서 온 소식』과 라파엘전파, 낭만주의

장성현 ( Sunghyun Jang ) 영미문학연구회 2018 영미문학연구 Vol.34 No.-

This study of William Morris’s News from Nowhere perceives artificiality as the main target of his social criticism in the novel. Artificiality, according to him, permeates every area of Victorian society: gender relations, education system, motherhood, commerce, manufacture, and most significantly, artistic practices. Morris believes that the artificial nature of capitalist society (its drive for mass production, increasing mechanization, the alienation of labor) inhibits artistic creativity and freedom, making it impossible to produce truly beautiful things. This study traces Morris’s conception of Victorian artificiality back to the Pre-Raphaelites, who attacked artificial modes of painting and aspired to truthfully copy nature in their works on the advice of Ruskin, whom Morris deeply admired; and further back to the Romantic poets, who pursued the sincerity of literature in reaction to artificial (or unnatural) practices of language in their day. What can be called the Romantic spirit, this article observes, runs through the different phases of Pre-Raphaelite movement, and also through Morris’s remarkable achievements in decorative art and his News from Nowhere. Nowhere, twenty-first-century Britain, is a utopia where all traits associated with modern artificiality have been completely removed, an ideal community in which art/work brings genuine aesthetic pleasure. In this utopian vision, Morris successfully integrates the Romantic tradition and Pre-Raphaelitism into his own socialism.