다수파주주의 억압행위와 소수파주주의 합리적 기대 : 폐쇄회사 주주간 분쟁해결에 관한 미국판례를 중심으로

金聖培 한국기업법학회 2002 企業法硏究 Vol.10 No.-

A close corporation is a business organization typified by a small number of shareholders, the absence of a market for the corporation's stock, and substantial shareholder participation in the management of the corporation. Close corporation usually formed by family members and friends. In close corporations, the minority shareholders often become employees and rely on their salaries as their return on investment. As the majority shareholders may control compensation and employment decisions, not only is the minority shareholder vulnerable to losing his or her investment, but the minority shareholder is often at risk of losing his or her job. Over the years, state legislatures and courts have developed two significant avenues of relief for the "oppressed" close corporation shareholder. First, many state legislatures have amended their corporate dissolution statutes to include "oppression" by the controlling shareholder as a ground for involuntary dissolution of the corporation. Second, particularly in states without an oppression-triggered dissolution statute, some courts have impose an enhanced fiduciary duty between close corporation shareholders and have allowed an oppressed shareholder to bring a direct cause of action for breach of this duty. The courts have developed three principal approaches to defining oppression. First, some courts define oppression as burdensome, harsh and wrongful conduct. Second, some courts link oppression to breach of an enhanced fiduciary duty owed from one close corporation shareholder to another. Third, a number of courts tie oppression to the frustration of the reasonable expectations of the shareholders. Of these three approaches, the reasonable expectations standard acquires the most approval, courts have increasingly used it to determine whether oppressive conduct has taken place, and commentators have generally been in favor of the reasonable expectations standard. Until the 1980s, Illinois led the United States in developing the doctrine of shareholder oppression. Illinois courts held that oppression did not require a finding of fraud or illegal conduct, and that heavy-handed and arbitrary conduct on the part of another shareholder will constitute oppression for the purpose of dissolution. Several jurisdictions have followed the Illinois decisions in recognizing broad bases for oppression. After the 1980s, New York led the way in developing the reasonable expectations test in order to determine whether there has been oppressive conduct. A reasonable expectation has been defined as an expectation (1) that is known to or assumed by the other shareholders and concurred in by them; (2) that is embodied in understandings, express or implied, among the participants; and (3) that is often derived from the parties' actions and course of conduct. Courts and commentators have observed that reasonable expectations are based on understanding shared by all of the stockholders at the outset of a business. To ascertain the reasonable expectations of close corporation shareholders, one could gather empirical evidence by asking a large number of stockholders about the entitlements they expected to receive as a result of their investments in close corporations. Even if a broader pattern of behavior in close corporations is recognized, specific evidence from the particular dispute before the court seems to be necessary as well. Courts may willing to find reasonable expectations based on a broader behavior pattern and thin specific evidence because they understand the economics behind an investor's commitment of capital to a close corporation. Once reasonable expectations have been established, the shareholder oppression doctrine protects them through an expansive range of remedies. The breath of remedies for shareholder oppression provides the courts with great flexibility to choose a remedial scheme that most appropriately responds to the aggrieved shareholder's harm. For a number of reasons, the buyout remedy itself is particularly significant. First, the buyout remedy functions as a market for the aggrieved minority shareholder by allowing the shareholder to recover the capital that he or she invested in the company. Second, the buyout remedy creates an equitable parting between the majority shareholder and the aggrieved minority shareholder. Third, the buyout remedy does not require the bargain between the shareholders to be articulated with precision. As long as a court is satisfied that general understanding of employment or management was shared between the investors, no further detail on these understandings is typically needed. Majority conduct that unjustifiably frustrates such general understandings will trigger oppression liability and will typically allow for application of the buyout remedy. In determining whether to order equitable relief, dissolution or a buyout, the court shall take into consideration the duty which all shareholders in a closely held corporation owe one another to act in an honest, fair, and reasonable manner in the operation of the corporation and the reasonable expectations of the shareholders as they exist at the inception and develop during the course of the shareholder' relationship with the corporation and with each other.

결혼 이주여성의 몸과 교차적 정치성

임지연 겨레어문학회 2019 겨레어문학 Vol.62 No.-

This article explores the internal/external hierarchy of the oppressive structure and the possibility/impossibility of solidarity by analyzing the unique experience of oppression experienced by marriage immigrant women through intersectional recognition. The concept of intersectionality reveals the matrix of oppression in which various oppressive mechanisms intensify and amplify one another rather than a single axis of oppression. It is a concept which reasons the problem of marginalized women in political sense for the fact that the oppressive mechanisms interact with each other and continue one after another to amplify the intensity of oppression, providing a basis for criticizing structures that makes vulnerable people more vulnerable. The intersectional oppression of Hae-hwa, the main character of this novel, appears in following aspects; First, it appears as the control image such as the ‘Wife of State’ and the ‘Bride Bought.’ The process of discrimination and exclusion experienced by marriage immigrant women, who are ‘bought’ by the state and family system for care work and reproduction, is amplified through a path closely intertwined with state-family-woman-society-capital. Here, the body of marriage immigrant woman is re-hierarchized into settled woman and other women, sub-subjects and other sub-subjects, male immigrants and other immigrants. Second, the essence of the image of the 'Wife of State' or 'Bride Bought' lies in the sexuality of migrant women. Marriage migrant women's sexuality creates love with other men. Here, love becomes the arena of competition between oppression and desire. The male characters are violent and cynical and drive the main character to death by making a relationship of disrelation. On the other hand, the solidarity of the marriage migrant women paralyzes the matrix of oppression even for a while through empathy and criticism. The intersectional politics of marriage immigrant women in the post-national era criticize the duplexing and re-hierarchy within the category and suggest that the possibility/impossibility of love and solidarity to be carefully rearranged. 이 글은 천운영의 잘가라, 서커스 를 중심으로 결혼 이주여성이 경험하는 고유한 억압의 경험을 교차성 인식을 통해 분석함으로써 억압구조의 내외부적 위계화와, 연대의 불/가능성을 탐색한다. 교차성 개념은 여성억압이 단일축이 아니라, 여러 억압기제들이 서로 강화하고 증폭하는 억압의 매트릭스를 드러낸다. 그것은 억압기제들이 상호작용하고, 연쇄적으로 이어지면서 억압의 강도를 증폭시키고, 취약한 정체성을 가진 이들을 더욱 취약하게 하는 구조를 비판할 수 있는 토대를 제공한다는 점에서 주변화된 여성의 문제를 정치적으로 사유할 수 있게 하는 개념이라고 할 수 있다. 이 소설에서 주인공 해화의 교차적 억압의 양상은 첫째, ‘국가의 아내’, ‘돈 주고 사온 신부’ 라는 통제 이미지로 나타난다. 국가와 가족제도가 돌봄노동과 재생산을 위해 돈을 주고 사온 결혼 이주여성이 경험하는 차별과 배제의 과정은 국가-가족-여성-사회-자본과 긴밀한 경로를 통해 맞물리며 증폭된다. 여기서 결혼 이주여성의 몸은 정주여성과 다른 여성, 하위주체와 다른 하위주체, 남성 이주자와 다른 이주자로 재위계화 된다. 둘째, ‘국가의 아내’나 ‘돈 주고 사온 신부’ 이미지의 핵심은 이주여성의 섹슈얼리티에 있다. 결혼 이주여성의 섹슈얼리티는 다른 남성들과의 사랑을 만든다. 여기서 사랑은 억압과 욕망의 각축장이 되는 장소다. 남성인물들은 폭력적이고 냉소적이며, 무관계적인 관계를 만듦으로써 주인공을 죽음으로 내몬다. 반면 같은 이주여성들의 연대는 공감력과 비판기능을 통해 억압의 매트릭스를 잠깐이나마 마비시킨다. 이처럼 탈국가 시대 결혼 이주여성의 교차적 정치성은 범주내부의 이중화와 재위계화를 비판하고, 사랑과 연대의 불/가능성을 세심하게 재배치할 것을 제안한다.

서발턴 여성의 억압과 자유 - 주요섭 소설 「살인」을 중심으로 -

송소용 한국언어문학교육학회 2015 한어문교육 Vol.34 No.-

Oppression and freedom of the subaltern female Centered on Ju Yoseop Novel ‘killing’ Song Xiao Yong The essay aims to analyze the novel ‘killing’ , written by Ju YoSeop, with view of Post-colonialism Feminism, especially the subaltern idea proposed by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. The heroine of ‘killing’ , written by Ju YoSeop, showed up as a prostitute and suffered the double oppression of social squeezing and sexual abuse. Ju YoSeop images in this works how female was ravaged and suffered pain during Japanese Colonial Era. ‘killing’ is a novel which is worth being analyzed with Post-colonialism Feminism. The protagonist Wooppo is a typical figure of subaltern, or the unwashed which is defined by Spivak. Furthermore, it’s national, class and gender sensed subaltern. During Japanese Colonial Era, the protagonist suffered lots of pain from Japanese pillage, and belongs to offspring of subaltern peasant in view of social class. She is a member of the vulnerable female group in the male-centralized society, who is prostitute to be excluded everywhere and Diaspora female. The great unwashed in works of Ju YoSeop, in view of subaltern, either dwelled and worked for others, or lived a vagrant life in a foreign country as lower-class workers. Korean people in Japanese Colonial era lived in national and class oppression, especially the female had to suffer sexism, which lead a miserable life to them. At the end, Wooppo made her decision to kill people under multiple oppression. In view of Post- colonialism, her killing behavior can be regarded as a strategy of liberation from the oppression and constraint to her.

억압의 관점에서 읽는 한센인차별의 어제와 오늘 : 사회복지 개입 방안의 모색

김경호(Kim, Kyung Ho) 한국사회조사연구소 2009 사회연구 Vol.- No.17

한센인에 대한 편견과 차별은 우리 사회의 다수가 소수에게 지속적으로 자행하는 억압(oppression)의 한 형태로 이해할 수 있다. 이 연구는 한센인에 대한 억압의 양상을 이해하고 그러한 억압의 구조를 타파하기 위해서는 어떠한 사회복지적 대응이 필요한지 탐색하는 데 그 목적이 있다. 연구목적을 달성하기 위해 한센인에게 가해지는 다양한 억압의 양상을 Young(1990)이 제시한 억압의 다섯 가지 유형(폭력, 착취, 주변화, 무력감, 문화적 제국주의)에 적용하여 체계적으로 고찰하였다. 연구결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 과거 한센인에게는 직·간접적인 폭력이 무자비하게 자행되었으나 오늘날에는 한센인에 대한 간접폭력의 망령이 문제가 되고 있다. 둘째, 과거의 강제노동과 임금 착취는 오늘날에는 자유무역협정에 의한 경제적 착취로 양상이 바뀔 전망이다. 셋째, 지금까지도 지속되고 있는 한센인 격리정책은 한센인을 우리 사회의 주변인으로 고착화시키는 결과를 초래하고 있다. 넷째, 한센인은 자신에게 천형처럼 따라붙는 스티그마를 내면화하는 과정을 통해 스스로를 격리와 배제의 울타리 안에 가두고 마는 무력한 존재로 전락한다. 다섯째, 문화적 제국주의에 기초한 사회적 편견은 한센인에 대한 편견을 정당화시키고 단순한 차이를 차별로 심화시키는 기제로 작동하고 있다. 끝으로, 이상과 같은 분석결과에 근거하여 한센인의 인권신장 및 복지증진을 위한 사회복지적 개입방안과 정책함의가 언급되었다. The purpose of the study is to place victims of Hansen's disease within its wider scholarly context and understand the nature of prejudice and discrimination against them in terms of oppression. The study juxtaposes Young's (1990) five categories of oppression—exploitation, marginalization, powerlessness, cultural imperialism and violence—to highlight the complex workings of oppression as an exclusionary factor. Professional journals and literature are the source of relevant text. The findings suggest that multiple oppressions and exclusions are systematically produced and reproduced in the processes of the everyday lives of the victims of Hansen's disease and their families. Discussion draws out the implications of the research findings for social and community work paying particular attention to the need to adopt a range of strategies for interventions in terms of social welfare policy.

억압의 관점에서 읽는 한센인차별의 어제와 오늘- 사회복지 개입 방안의 모색 -

김경호 한국사회조사연구소 2009 사회연구 Vol.10 No.1

The purpose of the study is to place victims of Hansen's disease within its wider scholarly context and understand the nature of prejudice and discrimination against them in terms of oppression. The study juxtaposes Young's (1990) five categories of oppression—exploitation, marginalization, powerlessness, cultural imperialism and violence—to highlight the complex workings of oppression as an exclusionary factor. Professional journals and literature are the source of relevant text. The findings suggest that multiple oppressions and exclusions are systematically produced and reproduced in the processes of the everyday lives of the victims of Hansen's disease and their families. Discussion draws out the implications of the research findings for social and community work paying particular attention to the need to adopt a range of strategies for interventions in terms of social welfare policy. 한센인에 대한 편견과 차별은 우리 사회의 다수가 소수에게 지속적으로 자행하는 억압(oppression)의 한 형태로 이해할 수 있다. 이 연구는 한센인에 대한 억압의 양상을 이해하고 그러한 억압의 구조를 타파하기 위해서는 어떠한 사회복지적 대응이 필요한지 탐색하는 데 그 목적이 있다. 연구목적을 달성하기 위해 한센인에게 가해지는 다양한 억압의 양상을 Young(1990)이 제시한 억압의 다섯 가지 유형(폭력, 착취, 주변화, 무력감, 문화적 제국주의)에 적용하여 체계적으로 고찰하였다. 연구결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 과거 한센인에게는 직·간접적인 폭력이 무자비하게 자행되었으나 오늘날에는 한센인에 대한 간접폭력의 망령이 문제가 되고 있다. 둘째, 과거의 강제노동과 임금 착취는 오늘날에는 자유무역협정에 의한 경제적 착취로 양상이 바뀔 전망이다. 셋째, 지금까지도 지속되고 있는 한센인 격리정책은 한센인을 우리 사회의 주변인으로 고착화시키는 결과를 초래하고 있다. 넷째, 한센인은 자신에게 천형처럼 따라붙는 스티그마를 내면화하는 과정을 통해 스스로를 격리와 배제의 울타리 안에 가두고 마는 무력한 존재로 전락한다. 다섯째, 문화적 제국주의에 기초한 사회적 편견은 한센인에 대한 편견을 정당화시키고 단순한 차이를 차별로 심화시키는 기제로 작동하고 있다. 끝으로, 이상과 같은 분석결과에 근거하여 한센인의 인권신장 및 복지증진을 위한 사회복지적 개입방안과 정책함의가 언급되었다.

인식의 사각지대, 여성문제-김남주 시를 중심으로

정순진 한국여성문학학회 2003 여성문학연구 Vol.9 No.-

This thesis is intended to investigate the women's problems in poetry of Kim, Nam-Joo The conclusion of this study is as follow. He reveals national contradiction and the class oppression through the representation of violated women's image. He expresses the sexual oppression, but he doesn't understanding women's problems. This is because for he understands the sexual oppression in patriarchy ideology. So he blames violated women. He is sexist, besides he reproduces sexism through poetry. Of cause he creates the positive women's image. But that women can not hut live beyond nation and class and gender. Women only exist the role of a devoted mother and sister in family. He is blind that mother and sisters were repressed in the patriarchy family. Only child can find women equal, because he doesn't know the sexism. This is because Kim, Nam-Joo only know the sexual violence by the ruling class and foreign power as women's problems. He ignores the inequality of labor, no pay house work and reproduction, etc. He has been interested in national contradiction and class oppression. So he cares nothing women's problems. 이 글은 여성의 모습이 나타난 김남주의 시를 대상으로 한국의 기충 여성이 안고 있는 민족 모순, 계급모순 성모순이 어느 만큼 인식되고 형상화되에 있는지 살펴보고 있다. 그 결과 민족 모순과 계금 모순이 상보적으로 기능한 결과인 능욕 당한 여성을 소재로 충격적인 참상을 폭로하고 있기는 하지만 그 참상에 함께 기능하고 있는 성모순에 대한 인식은 찾아블수 없었다. 능욕 당한 여성들을 보면서 민족 문제나 계금 문제는 인식하면서 성 문제는 인식하지못하는 이유는 여성은 남성과 동등한 존재가 아니라 보다 열등한 존재임을 믿는 성차별 이데올로기에 깊이 침윤되어 있기 때문이다. 시인은 내연화된 성차별 이메올로기를 시를 봉해 재생산하고있었다. 분노와 적개심으로 분열된 마음을 조화시킬 수 있도록 해주는 긍정적인 여성을 형상화시키고 있는 작품도 있지만 그 여성은 민족과 계급과 성을 초월한 상태에서 존재하거나 만족과 계급과 성을 분화시켜 인지하지 못하는 경우에만 존재하고 있었다. 어머니는 모든 존재조건을 초월해 자식을 위해서는 초인적 사랑을 보여주는 존재이며, 조선의 딸은 가족의 소중함만을 인식할 뿐 가족구조 속에 엄연히 존재하는 불평등한 인간관계에는 눈감은 화자의 이상 속에 존재하고 넉넉한 하얀 엉덩이의 아낙들은 네 살 박이 아이의 인식에서만 존재한다. 이것은 여성 문제라고 하면 단순하게 지배계급은 외세에 의해 자행되는 생적 유린만을 떠올릴 뿐 여성노동의 불평등 문제, 무보수 가사노동의 문제, 노동의 영역에서 배제된 생명 지생산문제 등에 대해서는 진혀 문제의식이 없었기 때문이다. 시인이기보다는 전사로 남고 싶어했던 김남주의 전선은 민족 모순과 계급 모순이었지 성모순은 아니었고, 시인이기보다 전사로 남고자 했기에 그는 다의직으로 해석할 수 있는 비유와 상징보다 벼린 칼날이 날카롭고 강직한 언어를 구사했다. 그리고 바로 이런 이유 때문에 김남주의시에서 여성문제는 인식의 사각지대에 놓여 있었다

Lucy’s Attempts to Emancipate from Patriarchal Oppression in Villette

이영화 현대영미어문학회 2011 현대영미어문학 Vol.29 No.3

Unearthing and restoring the female voice in a patriarchal discourse is a pivotal task in feminist studies. Charlotte Brontë is one female writer who attempts this through her writing. Through Lucy Snowe’s independence in Villette, Brontë attempts to accomplish female autonomy from male-dominated society. Lucy is exposed to patriarchal ideology which oppresses both her gender and sexual desire, and this ideology is represented by the school, religion and culture of the arts. The society that Lucy belongs to is controlled a monitored through Foucault’s Panopticon. In addition, two representatives of the men in the novel, Dr. John and M. Paul endeavor to spy on Lucy in order to imprison Lucy in the concept of Panopticon. Yet, Brontë depicts Lucy’s subversive attitude which attempts to transcend the surveillance of Patriarchal ideology. In this paper, I map out how Brontë illustrates female autonomy through Lucy’s independence from patriarchal ideology. Lucy undermines gendered suppression through her subversive attitudes, and seeks her realistic and ideal love-bond with M. Paul, in order to emancipate herself from sexual oppression.

『첸치가』에 나타난 베아트리체의 비극과 종교

송기호 ( Ki Ho Song ) 한국영미문화학회 2009 영미문화 Vol.9 No.3

P. B. Shelley`s The Cenci is based on an actual event which happened in Rome at the end of the 16th century. In The Cenci, Shelley shows how religious fanaticism leads people into immoral acts. Beatrice is a victim of the patriarchal oppression of her father who believes that he has the god-given right to treat his children according to his whim. Count Cenci`s patriarchal oppression is supported and strengthened by the Church, which forgives Count Cenci`s immoral acts in return for indulgences. Thus, the Church serves as a strong reinforcer sanctioning Count Cenci`s oppression of his children. Beatrice murders her father with the help of hired assassins, not being able to tolerate her father`s oppression any longer after being raped by him. In this process, she also assumes the role of a vengeful god like her father, justifying her action with a firm belief that she is simply fulfilling God`s will. This clearly shows how religious fanaticism can lead human beings into doing immoral acts. Faced with trial and a looming death sentence, Beatrice realizes that the Church (or God) and her father are little different from each other in their oppression of her. She becomes aware how oppressive powers form the ruling order of her society, but, unfortunately, her awareness of it does not lead into an attempt to reform society or emancipate the oppressed.

The Impact of Socio-Economic Position on Perceived Oppression: Using Social Support as a Mediator

이나경,임도빈 서울대학교행정대학원 2021 The Korean Journal of Policy Studies Vol.36 No.2

Within the continuing economic downturn, our society has been facing rapid dichotomization and bi-polarization between groups which reinforces social inequality. Young (2011) states that social inequality should be viewed as a concept of oppression, not by the distribution of resources, which has been considered as a general indicator of social inequality. Following her argument, she suggests exploitation, marginalization, powerlessness, cultural imperialism, and violence as sub-concepts of oppression. In this sense, this study uses the distribution of resources as an independent variable and the ‘perceived oppression’ presented by Young as a dependent variable to identify the role of social support as a factor that makes the difference between social-structural inequality and contextual inequality. Through hierarchical regression analyses and bootstrapping methods this paper looks at how the two different perspectives on inequality are related, and how the social support mediates the relationship between socio-economic position and perceived oppression. By shedding light on the meaning of socio-economic isolation of individuals, this study will contribute to the academia in searching for the alternatives to strengthen the stability of our society where the new paradigm of communication is being used to form network ties and corresponding sense of supports.

Gustavo Gutierrez’s View On the Self-World Relationship

Kim, Byoung Hoon 한국실천신학회 2015 신학과 실천 Vol.0 No.45

This paper discusses some ideas about the founder of Liberation Theology, who is Gustavo Gutierrez, now the worldly known thinker. My area of interest here is, especially, in his understandings about the self-world relationship as described in his writings. My reading points out that there are three main persectives from which he makes his arguments and also relates to other areas of his discussion. The first one is the poor’s perspective. According to him, the feelings and thoughts of the poor tends to be ignored in the real life world. Hence they do not have their own voices. Their voices are not fully supported not only in the economic settings but also in the religious settings. They need to be heard. This condition affects other areas of their life as well and it helps us to see the second way of his analysis about Latin American situation, that is, the theory of oppression. He believes that oppression is the main source of their suffering and problem along with the poverty. According to him, the poor experience their relationship with the world as structurally oppressed. It is because mainly the socio-cultural structure is made in general by the people of power, white and european. The Latin people are not strong enough to build up the structure on their own. They do not have socio-political power yet. Gutierrez addresses the issue of social, cultural, historical, psychological and spiritual oppression, of course from the perspective of the poor. What is the condition in which the poor can function optimally? Here comes the third and the final point of view, which is what Gutierrez considers as the spirit of liberation, especially in the religious and theological areas. His argument is that the poor need to claim their own voices about their faith experiences. The religious and theological liberty would make difference in the socio-political and psychological ones as well as in the religious one. Through the reinterpretation of Job, above all, Gutierrez suggests a new theology, the theology that is constructed by the subjective experiences of the poor or the suffering of the innocent poor in this oppressive world. Gutierrez believes that the poor do not talk about God but to God. This is the theology of doing which is different from the theology of speaking.