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원정식 ( Won Jeongsik ) 한국중국학회 2015 中國學報 Vol.71 No.-
Various stories had been shared among the clan family members, and it was mainly by oral transmission. The oral transmission of stories was a means conveying the clan ideologies and histories to future generations more effectively than written texts, and it was the same in the Changjiao Jian clan, For its capability to transmit stories, scalability to extend their context, and ease of arousing empathy or triggering interests among the listeners, orally transmitted stories were able to attract wide range of audience, regardless of listener``s literacy skills. But orally transmitted stories were more like to have inaccuracies or non-uniformity in them, and that traits clashed against the clan rule principles that focused on strict paternal lineage, or against the tendencies toward unitary ideology in the Ming and Qing dynasties. Thus, in compiling the genealogy book, the intellectuals in the family complemented and strengthened the clan ideology or logic, while removing or transfiguring unreasonable and unethical contents contained in the stories. Jian Derun, the progenitor of the Changjiao Jian clan, was a matrilocally residing son-in-law of Zhang Jinxing, and changed his surname to Zhang. And his offsprings scattered across the country for a long time, using Zhang, Jian or Zhangjian as their surname. During the Mid-Ming period, in the process of regulating genealogy system, it became urgent for the Jian clan to establish their lineal identity, and their genealogy was compiled for the first time. In the meantime, the story of Jian Derun centered on the story of ``the matrilocally residing son in law`` and ``securing the lucky place``. During the Kangxi years, the Jian family intellectuals created their identity as a result of cooperation and a win-win relationship between the Jian family and the Zhang family, reflecting to the social demands for their genealogical justification. Ordinary clan members believed various folk beliefs widely and reinforced mystique of the clan story by adding the Fengshui geometric divination stories as well as the oral tales of ``shoulder-pack strap`` and ``laying two eggs``. However, in compiling their genealogy with the attitude of strict historiography, the clan intellectuals did not include the stories of ``shoulder-pack strap`` and ``laying two eggs`` in their genealogy book, but they emphasized the Jian clan``s cultural traditions, contributions to the country, leadership activities in the communities, greatness of their virtue and personality. They also accepted some of the demands for mystifying their progenitor from ordinary clan members, and included the story of securing the lucky place, the story which had relatively high possibilities of arousing sympathy among the clan members. But they inserted the generosity and virtue factor in describing long term effects of securing the lucky place, thus mitigating non-ethicalities or irrationality of ``being the matrilocally residing son in law`` and ``making offsprings thrive``. Also in the version compiled in the Daoguang era, they tried to solve the problem of being the matrilocally residing son in law, which could be a source of criticism, by inserting a few minor modifications such as it was done by his accepting what aged Zhang Jinxing with no son had asked, and he visited home to get permission from his parents, and not all the Jian clan members changed their surname to Zhang. Like it, handing down orally stories of their forefathers, and sharing or modifying them, intellectuals and ordinary clan members together were able to understand more about their own lineage, form a sense of pride in their forefathers, and establish their identity. Also, by sharing their stories with the members of the clan branches living in other areas, they were able to cooperate with one another. Because of their shared identity, genealogically lineal families could overcome various crisis as a whole in times of difficult situations such as armed conflicts or clan wars (xiedou), and they could continue their activities like maintaining ancestrial hall, compiling their genealogy, expanding festivals, holding worship services and theatrical performances. Thus, the genealogical stories shared among the clan members were the resources that could be utilized beyond the physical limitations of the 3 elements in uniting of the clan members, the genealogy book, the clan fields, and the ancestrial hall.
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원정식(Won Jeong-sik) 한국외국어대학교 역사문화연구소 2010 역사문화연구 Vol.35 No.-
In the late 15th Century Christianity rose from an European cult to a world religion in accordance with the expansion of the European world. During the course of this expansion, discords concerning the Portuguese royal patronage elicited hatred and conflicts in Europe including the pope. In late 16th Century these conflicts intensified with the rise of Spain and France and decline of Portugal, while mission works became politically and economically important. Conflicts and antagonism in many missionary groups in Europe recurred in the overseas mission works while the achievements gained by the recently founded Jesuits became objects of envy and jealousy among other groups.Diverse views about the missionary sites developed many different approaches, and they became the roots of the conflicts. When various missionaries with different nationalities were encountered in China, the conflicts that arose in Europe were repeated. The Jesuits, which had entered China first, admitted the Portuguese royal patronage, secured its footing in China conceding its highly developed raditions, but other missionary groups had difficulties in coming into China owing to the disapproval of Portugal, and other routes were not easily accessible due to the maritime embargo of Ming. So, after Spain occupied the Philippines and met Fujian merchants engaging in maritime trades vigorously, Franciscan and Dominican Orders secured their footings in Fuan, Fujian, where Jesuits began to work late. The Portuguese royal patronage made the missionary situation complicated.In the spread of Catholicism in Fujian, active participation of the Chinese played key roles from the start. Fujian Catholic believers living in other provinces and overseas came back, and spread it to their relatives or in hometowns, and in the course, lineage functioned as an important tool. The intellectuals and local gentlemen participated in spreading the religion through their knowledge and through their social connections. They taught Chinese to missionaries, worked as helpers, translating and editing books related to Catholicism. As local gentlemen baptized by Jesuits made it possible for the ranciscan and Dominican Orders to secure the mission works in Fuan area, Jesuits and Chinese played important roles in the settlement of the 2 missionary groups,But the unrealistic works in Fujian done by Franciscan and Dominican Orders, with hostile sentiments against Jesuits caused antichristian movements, damaging the basis of their own mission works but also the footings secured by Jesuits. The debates on ancestor-worship-ceremony they raised brought up political problems beyond the missionary approaches. The issues escalated from the debates in churches to the conflicts between pope and the emperor, and finally became one of the factors which withdrew the tolerance policy of the Kangxi emperor, resulting in the prohibition of Christianity during the eras of the Yongzheng, Qianlong emperors. 기독교는 15세기 말 서유럽의 팽창과 함께 유럽의 종교에서 세계의 종교로 성장해갔다. 그 과정에서 제일 먼저 나타난 것은 포르투갈의 보교권을 둘러싸고 교황청을 비롯한 유럽 세계 내부에서 일어난 증오와 갈등이었다. 이는 16세기 후반 포르투갈의 국력이 약해짐에 반해 스페인과 프랑스의 위상이 높아지고 선교가 정치, 경제적으로 중요해짐에 따라 더욱 고조되었다. 게다가 유럽의 많은 수도회 사이의 갈등과 대립은 해외 선교를 놓고도 그대로 반영되었으며, 창설된 지 얼마 되지 않은 예수회가 이룩한 큰 성과는 오랜 역사를 가진 수도회들에게는 선망과 질투의 대상이 되기에 충분했다. 그밖에도 선교지 사회에 대한 수도회간의 인식의 차이는 선교 방법의 차이를 가져왔고 이것 역시 갈등의 뿌리가 되었다. 유럽 각국의 국적을 가진 다양한 수도회의 선교사가 또 다른 문명국 중국에서 만나게 되면서 유럽내의 제모순이 중국에서 다시 재현되었다. 중국에 먼저 진입한 예수회는 포르투갈 보교권을 인정하고 중국의 높은 문명을 인정하며 성공적으로 적응하면서 기반을 잡아갔다. 그러나 포르투갈의 요구에 따르지 않은 여타 수도회는 포르투갈의 거부로 쉽게 중국에 입국할 수 없었으며 다른 루트도 명조의 엄격한 海防정책으로 여의치 않았다. 이에 도미니코회와 프란치스코회는 스페인이 필리핀을 점령한 후 갖은 노력 끝에 예수회 선교의 사각지대인 복건의 복안현에 교두보를 확보할 수 있었다. 그러므로 포르투갈 보교권이 복건의 선교 판도를 복잡하게 만든 계기가 되었다고 할 수 있다. 복건의 천주교 전파에는 초기부터 중국인의 능동적 참여가 중요했다. 다른 성이나 해외에 거주하면서 천주교를 믿은 복건인들이 돌아와서 가족과 고향에 천주교를 전했으며 이때 종족 관계는 중요한 선교 수단이었다. 또 지식인이나 신사들은 자신들의 학식과 관계망을 이용하여 선교에 참여했는데, 선교사에게 한어를 가르치고 선교사의 조수로서 활약했으며 천주교 관련 도서를 번역하고 편찬하기도 했다. 또 도미니코회와 프란치스코회가 복안에서 선교 기반을 잡을 수 있었던 데에는 예수회 선교사에게 세례를 받은 신사들의 도움이 컸다는 사실에서도 두 수도회의 복건 정착에 중국인과 더불어 예수회의 선교 활동이 중요했음을 알 수 있다. 복건에서의 프란치스코회와 도미니코회의 비현실적 선교나 예수회에 대한 적대감은 이후 복안현을 시작으로 복건 전역에서 반기독교 운동을 일으켜 자신들의 선교 기반뿐만 아니라 예수회의 그것도 크게 약화시키는 계기가 되었다. 또 이들이 제기한 의례논쟁은 선교 방법상의 문제를 넘어서 정치적 문제가 되었고 敎界내의 갈등을 넘어서 교황과 황제의 갈등으로 확대되었다. 그리고 결국 강희제가 천주교 관용 정책을 再考하고 옹정제와 건륭제가 천주교를 嚴禁토록 했다.
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明·淸代 福建의 福德正神 - 土地神의 萬能神化와 관련하여 -
원정식(Won, Jeongsik) 동양사학회 2019 東洋史學硏究 Vol.149 No.-
This article revealed its historical change and significance by noting the importance of the name Fudezhengshen(福德正神) in the history of the Land god in China. Land god was established as one of the most famous gods in Ming-Qing dynasty and was given the title of Fudezhengshen. Amid the political, social and economic changes of Ming-Qing Dynasties, the god was needed to comprehensively accommodate people"s diverse wishes. The name "Fude" was added to the god of land and gold bar(金元寶). This made the land god all-around. This is an example of the traditional attitude of the Chinese people, who have solved the problem through compromise when various social needs erupt and collide. Zhu Yuan-zhang, who is from a poor farming family, had a story related to the god of land from birth. Zhu wanted to use the popular belief in the god of land for governance. The representative policy is the revival of the Lishe(里社) system. The revival of the Lishe system, which was carried out with the ban of Yinci(淫祠), spread the worship of the land god nationwide. The spread of the worship of the land god was the basis for the revival of the Lishe system in order to rebuild the country society by local officials. At the same time, the spread of the worship of the land god was the background to frustrate the revival of the Lishe system and force the people to consume the land god on their own. Since the mid-Ming period, social liquidity and dynamism have been enhanced as population increases, silver-centered economy, world system, and maritime trade is active. And popular novels with paintings, prints, and comedies developed, Yangmingxue(陽明學) which has been enhanced by popular appeal has appeared, and the revitalization of the civilian religion has progressed. Many farmers have become engaged in various industries, including government office work, commerce, manual industry and service industry. As their wishes became unacceptably varied in specific expressions, such as a good harvest, safety and disaster relief, the abstract term "Fude" was adopted and attached to the land god. Land god is now gradually transformed into almighty god, instead of an image of the god of the earth. His figure also changed from helpless gray-haired old man to a stout, able-bodied old man with a full smile, with a dragon head wand and a golden bar (or a wishful board), and his statue grew bigger. Thus, Fujian clan in Qing period also held a memorial service for Fudezhengshen and prayed for what only the Almighty can achieve, such as peace and harmony, infinite blessings and riches, etc. Today, the people of the nation are praying to Fudezhengshen in the name of Fude, not only for the right rain and wind, but also for the passing of exams, business success, health recovery, longevity, safety, prosperity of offspring and families, prosperity of the company, and national prosperity, etc.
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