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김미화 ( Jin Meihua ) 한국사회사학회 2016 사회와 역사 Vol.0 No.110
특정한 紀元을 기준으로 햇수를 세는 방식을 `紀年(法)`이라고 한다. 오늘날 기년이란 하나의 도구적 장치로만 여겨지지만, 근대 초까지 그것은 정치권력과 이념, 사상, 종교적 믿음과 문화가 뒤얽힌 중요한 상징이었다. 전통적으로 우주질서를 상징하는 `干支`와 왕의 치세를 뜻하는 `年號`를 기년으로 써 온 동아시아는 19세기 말 서구 근대의 도전에 직면해서 시간질서를 새롭게 定位하고자 했다. 그것은 또한 각국이 어떤 근대국가를 설립할 것인가, 무엇을 `민족/국민(nation)` 통합의 구심점으로 삼을 것인가와 직결된 문제였다. 일본은 위로부터의 개혁을 거치면서 `一世一元`의 천황 연호와 함께 `萬世一系`의 천황제의 정통성을 부각시키는 `皇紀`를 도입했다. 중국의 변법 과정에서는 공자나 黃帝를 국민통합의 상징이자 새 기원으로 삼자는 주장도 제기되었으나, 결국청을 무너뜨리고 수립된 중화민국은 혁명과 신생 민주공화국을 기념하는 `民國`기년을 채택했다. 중국과의 사대관계를 청산하고 자주독립을 실현해야 했던 조선은 개항 이후 중국 황제의 연호를 폐지하고 조선왕조 `개국`기년을 채택한 데 이어, 대한제국 선포를 전후해서 `建陽`, `光武`, `隆熙` 등의 독자 연호를 사용했다. 조선이 일본의 식민지가 된 뒤로는, 역사와 전통에서 민족통합의 구심점을 찾으려는 세력은 `檀紀`와 `공자`기년 등을 주창했고, 대한민국임시정부는 `民國`기년을 제정했다. 이렇게, 동아시아 전근대의 기년법이 대개 왕정과 결부된 것이라면, 근대 이행기에 시도된 다양한 기년법들은 `민족`의 유구한 역사나 문화, 아니면 혁명과 신생 근대국가의 수립을 상징했던 것이다. 해방 후 대한민국은 `단기`를 공식기년으로 채택했다가 1962년 `서기`로 바꾸었다. 그러나 그때의 서기는 이미 본래의 종교적·문화적 배경에서 벗어난 도구적기호에 불과했다. 국민국가 건설의 뜨거운 시기가 지난 뒤에 남은 것은, 추상화된 세계적 표준이다. The calendar era system (紀年法) brings with it years from a particular epoch (紀元). Today, this system and the epoch may be considered as an instrumental. But for a long time, all major civilizations have their own era systems and epochs, and the epochs have played pivotal symbol roles in the form of political power, ideology, religious beliefs and cultures. Traditionally, in East Asia, methods adopted for counting years were set `Chinese sexagenary cycle (干支)`, which symbolizes the cosmic order, and the `imperial era name (年號)` corresponding with the reign of the incumbent emperor. But faced with the challenges of the Western modernity in the late 19th century, East Asian countries had to establish a new calendar era system. That task was closely related to the projects of nation-building or modern state-building. Japan has carried out reforms based on the above, and introduced `Mikado`s era name (元號)` and `Kouki (皇紀)` to highlight the legitimacy of the Mikado system and the permanent succession of Mikado. On the other hand, various political forces that tried to reform China into a nation-state, proposed alternative era systems, with Confucius (孔子) or Yellow Emperor (黃帝) as an new epochal symbol and the symbol of the national unity. At last, however, the Republic of China (中華民國) replaced the Qing Dynasty system in favor of the `Minguo (民國)` as an era name to commemorate the revolution and the new republic. After the `port opening`, to escape from subordination to China and achieve actual independence, Joseon repealed the imperial era name of China and established `Gaeguk (開國)`, commemorating the foundation of the Joseon Dynasty. And then King Gojong proclaimed himself an emperor, and established Joseon`s own imperial era name. As you can see here, the calendar eras usually associated with the monarchy in pre-modern East Asia, the calendar eras of which introduced in transition period toward modernity symbolized the long histories and cultures of the nations, or revolution and the establishment of a new modern state. After the liberation, Republic of Korea adopted `Dangi (檀紀)` as an official calendar era, but replaced it with `anno domini` in 1962. However, at that time, anno domini was only accepted as an instrumental sign that is already disembedded from its original religious and cultural context. After the heated effort to form a nation-state building, what remained was an abstract world standard.
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박완 서울대학교 일본연구소 2024 일본비평 Vol.- No.30
This paper focuses on era names (年號) and posthumous titles (諡號) associated with the modern and contemporary emperor system as symbols for distinguishing and remembering the eras in Japan. For this purpose, the article examines the process of establishing related systems and practices, the public’s reaction to the emergence of new traditions and their desires for participation, the crisis of the era names and posthumous titles caused by the defeat in the war and democratization, and the process of transforming into a new system through discussions including those on the issue of public participation and surviving to this day. After the ascension and reign of Emperor Meiji, the first emperor in modern Japan, new practices regarding era names and posthumous titles emerged one after another, such as the “one-era-one-name system”(一世一元制), the streamlining of era name reviewing process, the prohibition of abdication during the emperor’s lifetime, and the use of the era name as the posthumous title after his death. However, it took nearly 60 years since the opening of the Meiji era for these practices to be institutionalized through the enactment of the Imperial House Law (皇室典範), Ascension Ordinance (登極令), and Imperial House Funeral Ordinance (皇室喪儀令). Meanwhile, people were interested in and eager to participate in the posthumous title decision process, which had not yet been institutionalized and had enough time until the decision. And they were also flustered by the emergence of new practices regarding the title. However, they finally came to embrace it because the era name used by Emperor Meiji, who had turned Japan into the first-class world power and empire, was selected as his posthumous title. As a result, the one-era-one-name system and the “one-name-one-title system”(一元一號制) were combined and repeated thereafter. However, the defeat in 1945 and democratization removed the legal basis for era names and posthumous titles, and discussions such as those on abolishing era names or deciding them upon the public’s ideas emerged. In response, the government granted a new basis called Era Name Act (元號法), stipulating the cabinet-led selection of the era name, and revived the lifelong reign and the one-era-one-name system. In addition, the possibility of the National Diet’s involvement in the issue of posthumous titles was excluded. When the first succession to the throne after the war occurred, the prewar systems of one-era-one-name and one-name-one-title were reaffirmed. And the recent revival of abdication before the emperor’s death and the title of emperor emeritus were also regarded as exceptional events. In this way, the status of era names and posthumous titles as symbols of the times continues throughout prewar and postwar periods and to this day, which in turn contributes to the survival of Japanese emperor system.
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