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청대 건륭기 만주족의 根本之地 만들기 -京師 旗人의 이주와 만주의 封禁을 중심으로-
이훈 고려대학교 역사연구소 2011 사총 Vol.72 No.-
In the early Qianlong reign, the Eight Banners were bedeviled by economic dislocation and martial declension. To solve these problems, the Qing government decided to relocate the bannermen in Beijing to Manchuria and simultaneously to enforce the policy of closing Manchuria, i.e. fengjing (封禁). Qing specialists have long believed that these two decisions made by the Qianlong emperor were not related each other: the former has been mainly discussed as one of the many economic policies to improve life of the bannermen in the capital, while the latter mostly examined from the perspective of agriculture and land reclamation in Manchuria. In fact, however, these two policies were taken to achieve a same goal, that is, making “Place of Manchu Origins (genben zhi di 根本之地, genben zhong di 根本重地),” by which the Qing government expected to resolve both the serious economic crisis of the bannermen and the steady acculturation of Manchus to Han customs. This policy came to transform the meaning of “Place of Manchu Origins” from a common noun indicating a “very important place” to a proper noun specifying “a fundamentally crucial place for the Manchus.” After the Qianlong reign, Manchuria as the "fundamentally crucial place for the Manchus" became a place for all the bannermen living in both Beijing and Manchuria. It was a place where privileges for bannermen in Manchuria should be protected, population pressure in Beijing (the home for half the entire banner populations in the Qing empire) be resolved, and finally, the Manchu culture and language be preserved.
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청대 건륭기 만주족의 근본지지(根本之地) 만들기 -경사(京師) 기인(旗人)의 이주와 만주의 봉금(封禁)을 중심으로-
이훈 ( Hun Lee ) 고려대학교 역사연구소 2011 사총 Vol.72 No.-
In the early Qianlong reign, the Eight Banners were bedeviled by economic dislocation and martial declension. To solve these problems, the Qing government decided to relocate the bannermen in Beijing to Manchuria and simultaneously to enforce the policy of closing Manchuria, i.e. fengjin (封禁). Qing specialists have long believed that these two decisions made by the Qianlong emperor were not related each other: the former has been mainly discussed as one of the many economic policies to improve life of the bannermen in the capital, while the latter mostly examined from the perspective of agriculture and land reclamation in Manchuria. In fact, however, these two policies were taken to achieve a same goal, that is, making Place of Manchu Origins (genben zhi di 根本之地, genben zhong di 根本重地), by which the Qing government expected to resolve both the serious economic crisis of the bannermen and the steady acculturation of Manchus to Han customs. This policy came to transform the meaning of Place of Manchu Origins from a common noun indicating a very important place to a proper noun specifying a fundamentally crucial place for the Manchus. After the Qianlong reign, Manchuria as the fundamentally crucial place for the Manchus became a place for all the bannermen living in both Beijing and Manchuria. It was a place where privileges for bannermen in Manchuria should be protected, population pressure in Beijing (the home for half the entire banner populations in the Qing empire) be resolved, and finally, the Manchu culture and language be preserved.
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Newchwang before Newchwang, c1368-1863
Chan, Kai Yiu East-Asian Society for Urban History 2021 Journal of east-asian urban history Vol.3 No.1
Though known for its connections with maritime trade at varying degrees before the rise of the Manchus and their Qing Empire, Newchwang as a fortress did not become a populous urban settlement in the nineteenth century when the Euro-American observers arrived. Through examining the history of this trade-related locale in the Qing Empire, this article explores the broader historical context, especially the Eight Banners System of the Manchus, which prevented Newchwang from developing into a port-city, and the implications behind.
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