18세기말 ‘대서양 흑인(Black Atlantic)’의 삶과 의식 : 올라우디 에퀴아노(Olaudah Equiano)의 생애를 중심으로

李英孝(Lee Young-Hyo) 歷史敎育硏究會 2009 역사교육 Vol.110 No.-

The late eighteenth century was the period when the free blacks in America increased sharply and the 'black Atlantic' was born. The living sphere of Afro-Americans expanded to Canada, Europe, and Africa crossing Atlantic ocean not limited to America and West Indies, thus became cosmopolitan 'black Atlantic.' They experienced various lives as 'noble savage' of Africa, 'naive victims' of European slave merchants, prisoners of American Indians, priests in Nova Scotia, sailors of merchant ships, and abolitionists, etc. They expressed their experiences inducting slave life, economic accomplishments, and conversion to Christianity into self-narrative and autobiographical writing. Stories of religious conversion by James Gronniosaw and John Marrant were published by white editors who wrote down oral statements of authors, and intended to prove spiritual redemption of blacks. Thus they failed to show black's unique thoughts on their experience of various ethnicities such as American Indians, English, Dutch, and Spaniard. Willie autobiography of Gronniosaw showed the image of typical black who were assimilated to Christian beliefs and culture, Man-ant expressed through his address his criticism on slavery as antithesis to principles of Freemasonry and tenets of Christianity. Autobiographies by Ottobah Cugoano and Olaudah Equiano were not merely written confessions of faith, but using religious discourses they indicted immorality of slavery and criticized dualism of White society. Cugoano denounced inhumane exploitation by Spanish conquering of America, and Euqiano compared the values and culture of Christian society with other cultures of various regions. The diversity of black Atlantic's experiences reached its highest point with dynamic life of Equiano. Black Atlantic writers were not aliens or outsiders, and their consciousness shows independent assimilation and resistance to mainstream culture, not confined to so called 'double consciousness.' Especially Equiano lived a cosmopolitan life not comparable to any Western man at that time securing critical perspectives on White society's values and religion, thus making him near to the concept of Paul Gilroy's 'modern black Atlantic.' Antiracism of Marrant and Equiano and anticolonialism of Cugoano were forerunners of counterculture to Western modernity It is for a future study to decide whether the activities and consciousness of Equiano and others represent blacks who lived crossing Atlantic world, but the spokesperson role these 'black Atlantic' played for African slaves in the late eighteenth century when was the crucial period for the fate of Afro-Americans connotes an important historical meaning.

프란츠 파농과 스티브 비코

하상복(Ha SangBok) 부경대학교 인문사회과학연구소 2016 인문사회과학연구 Vol.17 No.2

수많은 아프리카 국가가 독립하고, 남아공에서 아파르트헤이트(Apartheid) 체제가 붕괴된 오늘날 과연 프란츠 파농(Frantz Fanon, 1925~1961)과 스티브 비코(Steve Biko, 1946~1977)가 소 망했던 세계는 도래했는가? 파농과 비코가 생존하고 있었다면 분명히 아니요라고 대답했을 것 이다. 이 글은 이러한 아프리카의 현실을 목격하며 완전한 탈식민화와 탈인종화를 고민하는 흑 인들에게 여전히 파농과 비코의 사유가 유효함을 인정하며 탈식민 흑인의식의 연대와 확산이라 는 관점에서 그들의 사유를 살펴보고자 한다. 이를 위해 이 글은 우선 백인 자유주의자들의 관점과 통합 이데올로기, 흑인의 열등 콤플렉 스와 백인 선망에 대한 비코의 비판에서 파농의 어떠한 생각들이 반영되고 있는지를 검토한다. 이러한 검토에서 비코가 지속적으로 말하고 있는 흑인의 자아의식, 자기인정과 자기해방의 달 성, 그리고 자기결정과 행위에 대한 강조는 파농이 흑인에게 요청하고 있는 핵심 내용임을 알 수 있다. 그리고 비코가 주장하는 민족문화의 복원과 흑백 공존의 노력도 파농의 견해와 연결 된다. 즉 비코의 사유에 파농이 요청했던 타 문화를 배제하지 않는 민족문화의 추구, 상호 인정과 상호 소통의 관점이 포함되어 있다. 또한 두 사람의 사유는 타자의 고통에 공감하고, 그 고 통을 극복하고자 요청하는 연대의식과 집단성에 대한 고민도 반영되어 있다. 따라서 아프리카 현실과 싸우며 그 현실을 극복하기 위해 파농과 비코가 함께 공유하고 요청한 것은 완전한 탈 식민화를 통한 새로운 인간의 도래와 진정한 공동체의 모색이다. 이것은 오늘날 아프리카의 현실, 나아가 지구적 차원에서 차별받고 억압당하는 사람들의 현실을 극복하는데 기여하는 핵심 적 사유와 제안을 담고 있다. After many African countries became independent and the apartheid regime in South Africa collapsed, the world that Fanon and Biko hope for is here? If they survived, they’d say ‘No.’ This paper examines their ideas from the view of the solidarity and expansion of decolonial black consciousness, looking upon the ideas as available from black people. To this end, this paper investigates how Fanon’s thinking is reflected in Biko’s critical writings on white liberalists’ views, black’s sense of inferiority, and black’s desire for becoming white people. In this review, black man’s sense of self, self-recognition, and self-liberation that Bike consistently talks about in his articles show the key contents that Fanon asks black people to attain. And Biko’s argument for the restoration of national culture and the black-and-white coexistence resonates with that of Fanon. That is, there are Fanon’s opinions on the pursuit of nation culture that does not exclude other cultures and permits mutual recognition and communication in Biko’s thinking. They both share their grapple with solidarity and collectiveness in order to sympathize with other people’s sufferings and overcome them. Therefore, that Fanon and Biko together share and request in order to confront the harsh reality in Africa is the advent of new human and pursuit for true community. This contains the essential suggestion and thinking that are contributing to the practices of overcoming difficult situations in the world including Africa.

역사학 고전 다시읽기 : 두보이즈의 『흑인의 영혼』- “두 개의 정체성”을 지닌 흑인이야기-

황혜성 ( Hae Sung Hwang ) 한국서양사학회 2013 西洋史論 Vol.0 No.117

W. E. B. Du Bois`s The Souls of Black Folk was first published in 1903. In this eloquent collection of fourteen essays, Du Bois describes the magnitude of American racism and demands an end to it. A major theme of the work is the ``double consciousness`` that African- Americans faced: Being both American and black, a unique identity which had been a weakness in the past, but could be a strength in the future. This notion of twoness was really revolutionary at that time. The Souls of Black Folk was seminal work in African-American literature: The Book`s most important quote, “The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color-line” set forth what would be the most important social issue in American culture afterwards. Each chapters begins with two epigraphs, one from a white poet, and one from a black spiritual, to demonstrate intellectual and cultural parity between black and white cultures. Thus, The Souls of Black Folk was far ahead of its time, anticipating and inspiring much of the black consciousness and activism of the 1960`s civil right movement. The Souls of Black Folk is the master work of Du Bois who was one of the most highly educated men in America at that time obtaining a doctorate degree from Harvard University. It has remained the most influential text about African American experience for a century. It sure is a classic in the American literature and history: The elegance of Du Bois`s prose and the passion of his massage are as crucial today as they were upon the book`s first publication. (Hansung University/hshwang@hansung.ac.kr)

A Theatre of Victims: The Creation of Black Consciousness

김숙희 한국영미어문학회 2010 영미어문학 Vol.- No.97

According to LeRoi Jones, the role of authentic black writers is to rediscover their legitimate cultural traditions and their particular quality of blackness. Moreover, Jones was not interested in describing the peculiar inward value of the Black Art, but rather its functional values. Thus, it is only in light of the endeavor to unify functional use and aesthetic content of his literary works that his efforts are properly understood. It is obvious that this functional view of Black Art has a direct influence in determining the content of his two major plays, Dutchman and The Slave, which are discussed in this paper. Thus, in this paper, Jones' artistic abilities in successfully incorporating his newly developed theory of black consciousness into his writings are specifically discussed along with the dominant the me of victimization which is embodied in both of his plays. For instance, in Dutchman, Clay reaffirms his vulnerability and suddenly falls victim to a white woman, Lula, despite his efforts to liberate himself from an oppressive American history as his past history imposes an identity on his selfhood. In The Slave, Walker, a black revolutionary, is confronted with problems that originally were inherited from his personal contact with a white woman, Grace, in a hostile society. Walker remains a victim regardless of his outlook toward his rebel army as they attempt to change a fallacious world.

A Theatre of Victims

Sook-he Kim 한국영미어문학회 2010 영미어문학 Vol.- No.97

According to LeRoi Jones, the role of authentic black writers is to rediscover their legitimate cultural traditions and their particular quality of blackness. Moreover, Jones was not interested in describing the peculiar inward value of the Black Art, but rather its functional values. Thus, it is only in light of the endeavor to unify functional use and aesthetic content of his literary works that his efforts are properly understood. It is obvious that this functional view of Black Art has a direct influence in determining the content of his two major plays, Dutchman and The Slave, which are discussed in this paper. Thus, in this paper, Jones' artistic abilities in successfully incorporating his newly developed theory of black consciousness into his writings are specifically discussed along with the dominant the me of victimization which is embodied in both of his plays. For instance, in Dutchman, Clay reaffirms his vulnerability and suddenly falls victim to a white woman, Lula, despite his efforts to liberate himself from an oppressive American history as his past history imposes an identity on his selfhood. In The Slave, Walker, a black revolutionary, is confronted with problems that originally were inherited from his personal contact with a white woman, Grace, in a hostile society. Walker remains a victim regardless of his outlook toward his rebel army as they attempt to change a fallacious world.

아파르트헤이트를 넘어서 : 몽가네세로테의 시의 정치학

이진준(Lee Jin Jun) 한국아프리카학회 2004 한국아프리카학회지 Vol.19 No.-

Mongane Serote, one of South Africa's greatest poets, is dedicating himself to rewriting his personal memory as public memory in most of his poems. He, especially in the early short poems and the first long poem No Baby Must Weep, grafted his personal experiences of apartheid on the experiences of many other black people and expanded them into general ones in South Africa. The tyranny of the whites in South Africa penetrated deep into the daily lives of the blacks and distorted their thoughts and experiences. Therefore, he, being a prophet and spokesman of the blacks, wanted to comfort their wounds, to give them hope for the future, and to awaken their consciousness and make them a subject of the revolution for freedom. In his latest long poem Freedom Lament and Song, he looked at the reality of South Africa after apartheid with the eyes of a witness and historian. He sang their new historical problems and duties as well as their hopes and delights. He described the blacks' long and harsh journey to liberty with affection and criticized the inhumanity and tyranny of the whites. The poem is a kind of topographical chart of South Africa which is made by the tension and harmony of many conflicting elements. The reality of South Africa after apartheid-the evil of racism, sexism, poverty and disease-is also that of all Africa.

빅스 바이더벡과 20세기 초 영문학의 흐름상 유사성에 대한 고찰

김형천(Kim, Hyoeng-Chun),조태선(Cho, Tae-Seon) 한국산학기술학회 2012 한국산학기술학회논문지 Vol.13 No.8

빅스 바이더벡이라는 코넷 연주자는 일반적으로 백인재즈라는 새로운 길을 개척한 인물로 거론된다. 그러나 이 연구에서는 일반론적인 관점에서 벗어나 1920년대 초 흑인 재즈라는 테두리 안에서의 빅스 바이더벡의 독창성이 20세기 초 영문학에서의 새로운 사조였던 ‘의식의 흐름’이라는 표현법과 그 유사성이 깊은 것으로 본다. 음악과 문학 과의 흐름상의 유사성에서 두 분야가 어떻게 서로 영향을 주고받았는지는 모호하다. 하지만 표현방법 면에서 볼 때 두 다른 예술 분야에서의 유사성은 충분히 흥미로운 것이다. 특히 미국의 한 재즈연주자의 연주가 같은 시대 영국의 문학에서의 새로운 시도와 그 흐름을 같이 한다면, 현재를 사는 음악인들에 의한 다른 분야의 흐름과 음악의 흐름상 연관성에 대한 연구 또한 보다 폭넓게 이루어 져야 할 것이다. Bix Beiderbecke is a cornet player known as the first white jazz musician with white sound. In this study, we will see the similarity between his originality in black jazz field and 'Stream of consciousness' in 20th century's english literature. It is hard to verify how these two arts affect each other, and it is also very interesting to see the resemblance between jazz and the literature in their forms of expression. Especially, a jazz artist should have common understanding with english literature in the way of the expression, we are to pay more attention to the different form of the artistic works and study more about them to express in our way.

Whiteness in Toni Morrison’s A Mercy

사미옥 미국소설학회 2017 미국소설 Vol.24 No.2

Since the rise of critical whiteness studies in the 1990s, scholars from different disciplines have examined how whiteness has been defined, how whites view their white identity, how the ideology and power of whiteness have been supported, and so on. Scholars in American literature have contributed to critical whiteness studies as well. For instance, in Playing in the Dark (1992), Morrison demonstrates how 19th- and early 20th-century white writers constructed whiteness in their works. In addition, she offers a critical perspective on whiteness in A Mercy. In this paper, I examine how the novel challenges whiteness applying critical whiteness theories. To be more specific, I show that Morrison deconstructs the American foundational myth by offering counter-narratives; By presenting pre-racialized slavery, Morrison historizes how racial slavery was legalized for white dominance; Through the portrayal of white double consciousness of Jacob Vaark, Morrison examines the ways in which whites join the oppressive racial system; Regarding Rebekka, she describes the performance of white femininity in maintaining the racial hierarchy. The novel reveals whiteness through black slaves, Florens and her mother as well. By picturing black racial consciousness and their oppressed life, the novel shows the ways in which whiteness construes blackness.

Whiteness in Toni Morrison`s A Mercy

( Mi Ok Sa ) 미국소설학회 2017 미국소설 Vol.24 No.2

Since the rise of critical whiteness studies in the 1990s, scholars from different disciplines have examined how whiteness has been defined, how whites view their white identity, how the ideology and power of whiteness have been supported, and so on. Scholars in American literature have contributed to critical whiteness studies as well. For instance, in Playing in the Dark (1992), Morrison demonstrates how 19th- and early 20th-century white writers constructed whiteness in their works. In addition, she offers a critical perspective on whiteness in A Mercy. In this paper, I examine how the novel challenges whiteness applying critical whiteness theories. To be more specific, I show that Morrison deconstructs the American foundational myth by offering counter-narratives; By presenting pre-racialized slavery, Morrison historizes how racial slavery was legalized for white dominance; Through the portrayal of white double consciousness of Jacob Vaark, Morrison examines the ways in which whites join the oppressive racial system; Regarding Rebekka, she describes the performance of white femininity in maintaining the racial hierarchy. The novel reveals whiteness through black slaves, Florens and her mother as well. By picturing black racial consciousness and their oppressed life, the novel shows the ways in which whiteness construes blackness.

쿳시의 『야만인을 기다리며』에 나타난 자유주의와 알레고리 문제

이석구 한국비교문학회 2008 比較文學 Vol.0 No.46

Although many Western scholars regarded the protagonists of Coetzee's works as champions of Western liberalism, this study asserts that the magistrate of The Waiting for the Barbarians is far from a liberal hero, i.e., the kind of figure who tries to uphold liberal principles and also reaches a great moral awakening through a painful process of physical and spiritual mortification. For instance, the magistrate believes himself to and also tries to be morally differentiable from the Empire. However, what he is not aware of is that he sees through the eyes of the Empire even after he openly rebels against the Empire. Even his attempt at purifying himself of the sin of his colleague, is not free from a pursuit of self-interest. Due to his failure to see a nomadic girl as an equal human being, the magistrate nullifies the possibility for a genuine interracial relationship. Viewed in this context, the magistrate, this study argues, is comparable to the English-speaking white in South Africa. This argument is based on the fact that the English-speakers in South Africa were denounced by the radical blacks as feeding on the very system they criticized and also the fact that any possible alliance with them was flatly denied by the leaders of the Black Consciousness Movement of 1970's. This movement's view that "Even the best-intentioned white could never really understand the suffering of the blacks" is alluded to when the magistrate, even with his humanitarian attitude, fails to understand what the "barbarian girl" really wanted from him. Coetzee's novels are often allegorical, and this narrative feature that tends to solicit abstract and universal interpretation has brought upon the author an ignominy of historical escapism. This study is an attempt to write back to the negative criticism by interpreting Coetzee's novel within the context of South Africa, specifically, of the dynamics between the South African English-speakers and blacks.