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정하영(Choung, Hayoung) 서울행정학회 2012 한국사회와 행정연구 Vol.22 No.4
This study analyzes the bureaucracies of the Chosun and Ching dynasties from a cultural perspective. In particular, it attempts to locate continuities with the present through analyzing the social and cultural backdrops of the respective systems. The commonalities between the Chosun and Ching Dynasties are that they are centralized systems, and both emphasize compassion, maintaining ‘face’ and relationships, misalign authority with responsibility, and may lead to corruption through pulling strings for promotion and the use of gifts and bribes. However, differences do exist. First, the Ching dynasty was a system of centralization and equal shares. In order to consolidate the emperor’s power, Jun Ji Chu(軍機處) was established, secret messages sent to the emperor, functions of remonstrance and check were mitigated, Chinese Gentry(紳士) and scholars were controlled and a merit based civil service exam, and service checks and evasion policy were utilized. However, the principle of equal shares was upheld, and the authority of central and local bureaucrats was expanded. In particular, as local bureaucrats’(督撫) possessed intelligence, human resource and financial authority (including the military), the administration system became more distributed and independent. Secondly, the Ching Dynasty focused on capabilities. A large portion of those who passed the civil servant exam were commoners and a fixed portion were compulsorily allotted for the service check. Also candidates were selected to be trained as working bureaucrats and they were to compete with one another for promotion and in this process ‘guanxi’ took effect. Moreover, a degree of equality between the superior and the subordinate was visible. Third, processes of division and integration took place. The expansion of local authorities including the local bureaucracy, interest-seeking by Chinese Gentry, average culture, and corrupt officials prompted division and then integration under a new power. As for the Chosun Dynasty, first of all, the system of centralization and rank prevailed. Centralized power and order was established systematically and implemented through personnel administration including the civil exam, systems allowing officials to take multiple positions and banning officials to be stationed at a specific location or take positions that they were affiliated with, term of position, evaluation of merits, and praise and censure. However, actual authority was not concentrated around the king, but instead, mostly endowed upon bureaucrats. Also the bureaucrats themselves used their rights of remonstrance to check the king. However, it took power struggle and dispute in order to justify a system of checks and balances. Secondly, a rank system based on ancestry was established. The rank of yang ban was passed down and people were segregated according to where they came from. Also the people who passed the civil exam were mostly the children of bureaucrats or belonged to specific clans. In addition, lineage and faction took effect in the recommendation of candidates, evaluation of merits, and promotion. Homogenization and segregation based on ancestry(출신) prevailed and office hunting took place, while there was a stringent system of rank between superiors and subordinates.
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근세 일본 지방행정조직의 구조: 오카야마번(岡山藩)의 군카이쇼(郡會所)사례 연구
정하영(Hayoung Choung) 서울대학교 아시아연구소 2021 아시아리뷰 Vol.11 No.1
본고는 오카야마번의 군카이쇼를 통해 근세일본의 지방행정조직의 구조를 분석하였다. 군다이(郡代)와 고오리부교(郡奉行) 등의 임명과 승진 등은 기본적으로 가격(家格)에 따라 이루어졌다. 번은 부정부패 방지 혹은 햐쿠쇼(百姓)를 보호(혹은 지배)하기 위해, 고오리부교 등 지카타야쿠닌(地方役人)을 조카마치(城下町)에 거주하게 하고, 또한 순회 및 출장을 제한시키고, 군메쓰케(郡目付)의 감시와 감찰기능을 강화시켰다. 이런 제도는 부패와 유착을 방지하는 데 어느 정도 긍정적인 측면이 있었지만, 담당 군에 대한 기본적 지식과 햐쿠쇼의 실상에 대한 무지, 소극적인 행정, 역직의 이권화와 부정부패가 생겨났다. 이런 부정적인 현상은 무라야쿠닌(村役人) 및 봉공인(奉公人) 사이에서도 마찬가지로 나타났다. 다른 한편, 가치(徒) 및 하급(혹은 신참) 헤이시(平士)들은 가격 중시와 후다이(譜代) 등의 역직과 경제력 독점 및 그들의 생활습관에 대해 반감을 갖고 비판을 가했다. This article analyzes the structure of the regional administration in Earlymodern Japan through the organization of the Okayama Domain. Gundai and Koribugyo (magistrate of a country) are appointed and promoted according to the family status. In order to prevent corruption of officials and to protect (or dominate) farmers, the domain government has allowed local officials to live in castle towns, restricted their touring and business trips, and monitored and supervised them through controlling the superintendent officer of the district. In spite of having these systems to prevent corruption and collusion, officials still do not possess the basic understanding of the county and the sufferings of the local peasants under such circumstances. So, they performed negatively in the administration. Consequently, this encouraged more corruption when the officials were seeking higher positions. There were no exceptions for the village officers and servants of samurai. On the other hand, Kachi (Foot Guards) and lower-ranking warriors were not satisfied. They criticized the culture of over-dependence to the family status, the monopoly of official positions, the economic power by the higher-ranking samurai (Fudai), and the dominance over their lives.
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