청말(淸末)의 산학(算學) 학습(學習)과 과거(科擧)에서의 산학(算學) 시험(試驗)

장의식 ( Jang Ui Shik ) 중국사학회 2018 中國史硏究 Vol.115 No.-

Though pioneering intellectuals like Feng Kuaifen(馮桂芬), a staff of Lee Hungchang(李鴻章), claimed for the education of arithmetic in the beginning of 1860, regarding it as the essence of the West Learning, it was still generally recognized as "trivial learning" or the non-orthodox learning of the western barbarians, just as prescribed in the Rite Department. Mathematics was educated together with foreign languages in Tongwen Guan(同文館, School of Common Languages) built in the process of Self-strengthening Movement after the Opium war and Taiping Rebellion, which was exceptional. The motion of Zongli Yamen(總理衙門) to newly install Astronomical & Arithmetic Institute in Jingshih Tongwen Guan instigated huge debate in the late 1866. The debate not only threw cold water on the project to expand Tongwen Guan to a comprehensive educational institute, but delayed the western scientific education focused on mathematics. On the contrary it also had an effect of spreading the recognition that mathematics was not just West Learning. The debate was gradually transferred to the controversy on orthodoxy and non-orthodoxy within Chinese learning. The conclusion was that mathematics was not orthodox learning. Accordingly it is not completely proper to understand the debate just as a conflict between Chinese culture and Western culture, or confrontation between West Learning and Chinese Learning, or stubborn conservatives' anti-western view and expression. The education of mathematics encountered a big trouble, one of the most important reason of which was the Chinese tradition of viewing astronomy and mathematics as non-orthodoxy. The success in the education of mathematics depended on whether it could be accepted in the state examination. The first suggestion to include the mathematics in the state examination was already presented against the periodical background of the Chinese defeat in the Opium War in 1843(the 23rd year of Daoguang). The meaningful proposal for it was made by Shen Baozhen(沈葆禎) in charge of Navy Shipyard in 1870, and afterward Lee Hungchang proposed a motion to open a bureau of Western Learning(洋學局) and a department of Self-strengthening(洋務科), which arose a furious argument. Lee Hungchang's proposal was presented as an opinion for Coastal Defense in the debate between Coastal Defense(海防) and Land Defense (陸防), caused by the so-called Taiwan accident. A fisherman of Ryukyu who was drifted to Taiwan was killed by natives of Taiwan in 1871, in the pretext of which Japan dispatched military force to Taiwan in 1874. The debate between Coastal Defense and Land Defense was caused by this accident. Though the debate was fundamentally strategic, it was developed to a furious conflicts between two opposite sides. Lee Hungchang's proposal was not implemented on account of his sides' defeat any way. The mathematics examination finally came true with Chen Xiuying(陳琇瑩)'s proposal was approved in April 1887, even though Pan Yantong(潘衍桐)'s proposal had been refused again by high officials in July 1884. The approval is believed to be made under the dowager empress Xi(西太后)'s strong will. The examination of mathematics as a formal state examination was not only a symbolic event the government officially acknowledged the value of mathematics, but was a notice foretelling the abolition of state examination system. Though the education of mathematics, West Learning and technology was open, it held fatal restrictions. The quota of the passers in the examination was so restricted that only one person was allowed to pass the examination in every 20 candidates in the provincial examination. As a result the total number of candidates who passed the provincial examination was just three. Besides, the examination of the mathematics was just implemented one time selecting one passer and abolished in 1888. The destiny of mathematics education in the late Ch'ing betrays the change of the Chinese learning, periodical situation of history and etc. The state examination of mathematics was after all invalidated not only because of the defects in institution but also because of the unchanged recognition regarding mathematics as a non-orthodox learning.

논문(論文) : 청말(淸末) 경사대학당(京師大學堂) 진사관(進士館) 1기생(期生) 진사(進士)들의 행로(行路)

장의식 ( Ui Shik Jang ) 중국사학회 2015 中國史硏究 Vol.95 No.-

The students who first entered the Jinshi-guan that opened in May 1904 were mainly composed of the Jinshi who had passed the capital examination in 1903, while it was opened to Jinshi who had passed the two former capital examinations. How large was the number of the first students ? The number of Jinshi-guan students who attended a graduation examination was 106, among which 85 were the Jinshi of 1903, 3 the Jinshi of 1895, 9 the Jinshi of 1898, 6 the Jinshi of 1884 and 3 were unknown. If we consider all of these the first Jinshi-guan students, the number of the first students was at least 106. And there might be students who stopped studying on the way or could not attend the graduation examination. Therefore, 85 1903-Jinshi among 106 must be the least number. And it is proved that total 102 Jinshi of 1903 capital examination entered Jinshi-guan. When we consider all of these the first students of the Jinshi-guan though it is possible that some entered the Jinshi-guan as the second student, the rate of 1903 Jinshi who entered Jinshi-guan becomes around 32%. If we suppose that all of these 102 Jinshi were the first Jinshi-guan students and only 85 of them took the graduation examination, with 17 not taking the examination, the number increases to at least 123. Enen if we suppose all of 102 were the first students of Jinshi-guan, the number of Jinshi that entered the Jinshi-guan just occupied 1/3 of all 1903 Jinshi. It is surprising, considering their entrance was obligatory. What was the reason ? This is significant because it shows us what the response of the 1903 Jinshi to the Jinshi-guan was. While 9 of the best 10 Jinshi of 1903 capital examination entered the Jinshi-guan, none of the lowest grade Jinshi entered. Among 102 Jinshi of the 1903 capital examination who entered the Jinshi-guan, all of the three first grade Jinshi and 76 of the 138 second grade Jinshi entered Jinshi-guan, meanwhile only 23 of the 174 third grade did. The lower the grade was, the lower the rate of entrance was. The reason that the third grade Jinshi was not inclined to enter the Jinshi-guan was mainly because they were appointed to the local administration posts rather than capital government offices. In fact, those appointed to the local administration offices had no way to enter the Jinshi-guan. The third grade Jinshi appointed to the capital government office was able to enter the insitute, which is proved by the fact that 19 of the third grade Jinshi who took the graduation examination all had occupied capital government posts. Another reason that many of the 1903 Jinshi did not enter the Jinshi-guan was higher age. Jinshi over 35 years old did not have to enter the Jinshi-guan. As Jinshi was older, he is inclined to try to take local administration post rather than the capital government offices, because waiting lists for the capital government office was too long. And for them to stay in boarding house was also a difficulty. Besides this, considering that there was no tuition, and boarding house was freely provided, and large amount of stipend was supplied, with 240 liang(兩) to Hanlin(翰林) and Zhongsu(中書), and 160 liang to Zhushi(主事), we can confer that the response of the 1903 Jinshi to Jinshi-guan would not be so bad. 100% of the first top three(1甲), and 55% of the second grade(2甲) Jinshi entered Jinshi-guan. Although the obligatory boarding house life and their resistance against new learnings could influence their decision a little, the low rate of entrance into Jinshi-gaun was mainly because only a small number of the third grade(3甲) Jinshi entered Jinshi-guan, the most important reason of which was that most of the third grade Jinshi were appointed to local administrative offices and were of higher age. Jinshi-guan encountered the large difficulty of the abolition of state examination system(科擧) in September, 1905. It lost personnel resources to fill with. Consequently the change of management for Jinshi-guan was inevitable. It decided to send the second students in a large scale to Tokyo Hosei University(東京法政大學) in Japan in October, 1906. However, because the first students were scheduled to graduate in the end of that year, they were decided to keep on studying in Jinshi-guan. The number of the students who took the graduation examination in January 1907 was 106, among which those who had stayed in boarding house(內班) were 77, and those who had stayed at home(外班) were 28, and one was student who had returned from oversea study. Generally students who had stayed in the boarding house earned far better achievements in the examination than those who stayed outside. Students` achievement was classified in 4 grades such as "excellent(最優等)", "good(優等)" "plain(中等)" and "inferior(下等)". And among the 77 boarding-house students, 38 were valued as "excellent", 21 as good, 16 as "plain" and 2 as "inferior". On the contrary, outside staying students were composed of 0 excellent, 11 goods, 17 plains and 0 inferior. Boarding house life might be helpful for their study. And it is also confirmed that excellent students in state examination also won better scores. Authority provided promotions for 90 among 106 Jinshi students who had taken the graduation examination in April, 1907. Providing promotions for new school students or students having studied abroad was government policy to encourage new education. There was no discrimination in promotion between boarding house students and outside staying students in the case of the first Jinshi-guan graduates. Considered criteria were the state examination(朝考授職) and the graduation examination(成績等級), among which the state examination achievement was decisive. However good score they got in the graduation examination, they were not able to overcome the grade in the state examination. For example, those who became Zhushi or Zhongshu in each department were not able to enter the National Academy(Han-lin-yuan), however excellent score they got in the graduation examination. Generally two official ranks promotion was allowed. For example, the second grade(2甲 )or the third grade(3甲) Shujishi(庶吉士) could get the two ranks higher posts like Hanlinyuan Pienshu(編修) or Jiant`ao(檢討). All the graduates except one unknown were composed of 54 Hanlin, 48 Zhushi, 3 Zhongshu, with the rate of Hanlin 51%, Zhushi 46% and Zhongshu 3%. Among 54 Hanlin 53 stayed in boarding house with one exception. And Among 77 boarding house students, 53 were Hanlin, 22 were Zhushi, one was Zhongshu and one was classified as ``unknown``, with the rate of 70:29:1 %. The rest were outside staying students. 6 of 40 Zhushi won the "excellent" grade, all of whom were boarding house students. One of three Zhongshi got the "excellent" grade and he was also a boarding house student. We can see here that boarding house students were better in examination than outside staying students. 54 Hanlin were made up of 57 % excellent, 26% good, 15% plain, and 2% inferior. And 40 Zhushi were composed of 13% excellent, 60% good, 27% plain, and 0% inferior. Zhongshu were composed of 33% excellent, 67% good, 0% plain and 0% inferior. Hanlin`s have got better grade in graduation examination than Zhushi or Zhongshu`s. On the whole, it could be said that what was more decisive in their achievement in the examination was whether they stayed in boarding house or not, rather than whether they had belonged to Hanlin or not. However, analyzing the examination achievements of the boarding house students only, we can have another conclusion. Among 76 boarding house students except one unknown case, Hanlin students were composed of 58% excellent, 26% good, 13% plain and 2% inferior, while Zhushu students were composed of 27% excellent, 45% good, 27% plain and 0% inferior. Generally Hanlin students` achievements were better than Zhushi students, though 2 inferiors were included among Hanlin students. Hanlin students not only had won better grades in the capital examination, but also in the graduation examination of the Jinshi-guan.

청말(淸末) 중국(中國) 주재(駐在) 서양(西洋) 선교사(宣敎師)의 과거(科擧) 및 교육(敎育) 개혁론(改革論)

장의식 ( Jang Ui Shik ) 중국사학회 2018 中國史硏究 Vol.113 No.-

Western missionaries in China constantly asserted the reform in the late Ch'ing China. They especially emphasized the reform in the state examination system and the education in various ways, even suggesting reform programs. Not only they directly claimed the reform, but indirectly created a favourable atmosphere for it, introducing various books on the Western educational institutions with a little exaggeration. They did not persisted in the abolition of the state examination system until the Chinese-French war, but preferred a partial reform of it, maintaining the improvement in the method of the examination and the introduction of the Western disciplines in education. This shows us that they are confused in their recognition of the examination system. As Calvin Mateer shows, though the state examination system had a huge problem, the social position and influence, and the positive side of it was not ignorable. Instead, a proposal to select government officials through the school system was suggested. This was an effective proposal to promote the educational system without abolishing the state examination system and at the same time to make the reform of the state examination system possible. It was an initiative form of the Examination-School Integration theory. The establishment of the three-grade(or two grade) school system, the performance of the national education and the financial preparation for the educational expense through donation were suggested for the performance of the reform. It was Timothy Richard, the secretary of the Society for the Diffusion of Christian and General Knowledge(廣學會), that proposed the most effective reform plan in the age from Sino-French war to Sino-Japanese war. In 1889 he presented his reform plan to Lee Hongzhang, insisting on the establishment of the three-grade school system, the establishment of an official educational department, the financial preparation for the education, the addition of the western disciplines to the state examination and etc., making a comprehensive allowance for school, newspaper and library all together. In April 1894, when he insisted that the affair of the educational department(廣學部) should be discussed with Robert Hart, the inspector general of the Chinese maritime custom house, he exposed his imperialistic nature. Thus even Timothy Richard, the most radical educational reformist, did not persisted on the abolition of the state examination system. The abolition of the state examination had never been discussed up to this stage. After Sino-Japanese war, they proposed a new opinion that the university supposed to be established in the capital should have the two functions as that of a national university and as that of the governmental educational department, which was a new strategy aiming at two effects, setting up a school system and establishing an educational department. Jing-shih-tahsieh-t'ang, the Imperial University of Peijing established after 1897 Reform Movement really had functions like this. The imperialistic invasion which began to be shown in the Timothy Richard's reform plans became conspicuous after Sino-Japanese war. Timothy's imperialistic tendency is well manifested in his "New Policy" published in Oct. of 1895, which contained the perspective to make China a protectorate. Young Allen also had the same attitude. After Sino-Japanese war, the missionaries began to really present their reform programs to the Chinese high officials or to the Board of Foreign Affair(總理衙門), often taking advantage of their personal relationship, which was a new feature of this time in China. Missionaries also introduced the modern educational ideals of the West, the ideal of the national education enabling every class of people to be commonly educated without any segregation, and an obligatory educational system to China, which enabled the Chinese intellectuals to recognize more concretely the modern educational ideals and the educational systems of the West. Though it is certain that the reform of the state examination system and the education from the late 19^th century to 20^th century was performed by the Chinese intellectuals’ active leadership, it was sure to be affected by the missionaries’ reform plans which had been created responding to change in the Chinese inner and outer situations. Especially the reform plans proposed by the missionaries during the period of reform movement after Sino-Japanese war must have provided the Chinese reformers with inspiration and vision. The reform plans, whether suggested by 1897 reformers or promoted by the government which had frustrated the former reformers, were generally similar with the missionaries’. My fundamental concern about this issue is not the mutual affects between them, but why the missionaries were so indulged in the reform of the state examination state and the educational reform in China. This will provide a good example which will be helpful for the understanding what the missionary’s motives to make them contend the performance of reforms in their different regions(mainly in colony) in the age of imperialism. The missionaries' imperialistic ideals exposed explicitly after the Sino-Japanese war have been a good ground for the blame that they represented the imperialistic policy of their own state. But it should also be reconsidered that they were mostly interested in the educational reform and the reform of the state examination system, not in either politics or economy. Perhaps they might be too much eager for the enrichment of China, or intend to produce a favourable atmosphere for the expansion of European civilization and for the Christian mission, by the fundamental change in the Confucian system through the reform. However, whatever it may be, their devaluation on the Chinese civilization is sure to be the effect of the orientalism. In 1897 Timothy Richard suggested to the British minister of foreign affair that the Britain agree to the raise of customs rate by 1 %, and invest the surplus custom revenue cause by the raise of customs rate to the Chinese education. He added that this policy would make the future Chinese leaders study in England, which would be again advantageous for the trade. This way of thought indicates many things. America allowed a part of the recompense for the Boxers’ Rebellion to be invested for the Chinese students' educational expense studying in America. This policy is similar with Timothy's proposal. The relationship between them is to be investigated more.

청말(淸末) 경사대학당(京師大學堂) 진사관(進士館) 2기생(期生) 진사(進士)들의 색다른 경험

장의식 ( Ui Shik Jang ) 중국사학회 2016 中國史硏究 Vol.101 No.-

The number of Jinshi that succeeded in the final stage of State Civil Examination in 1905 was 273, among whom 272 were given government offices. 64 were appointed to the post of Hanlin(翰林), and 117 were appointed to either Zhongshu(中書) or Bushu(部屬) of the central government. All these 181 central government officials were forced to enter Jingshi-guan. Jingshi-guan was similar with Shuchang-guan(庶常館) in Hanlin-Yuan(翰林院) in the sense that traditional learnings like Confucian classics and history were studied, but very different in two ways. Unlike Shuchang-guan government clerks like Zhongshu and Bushu besides Hanlin were obliged to enter the Jingshi-guan, and modern learnings were also studied in this institute. We have a historical perspective that the reputation of 1903 Jinshi and 1904 Jinshi was not so favorable. However, this perspective needs careful research, because it might result from a revolutionary historical view which is critical against all the policies of Ch``ing dynastic government. I think this view is too excessive generalization based on a few participants`` subjective records of memories about Jinshi-guan. I insist that a more fair and balanced estimation of them is possible, only when it is researched on the basis of objective data like the Jinshi-guan entrance rate. The number of 1905 Jinshi who had to enter Jingshi-guan in the second year was in total 181, among which 64 were Hanlin and 117 were Bushu and Zhongshu. About 107 entered the institute in practice. But all the Second were 150. 107 entered among 181, the real participants`` rate can not be valued so high, considering its obligatory nature, but it is not so low, considering that there was exceptional rule which enables them not to participate in it. The abolition of the state examination system endangered the foundation of Jinshi-guan, because Jinshi-guan was set up as an educational organ for Jinshi. In this situation Ch``ing government decided to send the second year Jinshi-guan students to Tokyo Hosei University(東京法政大學) in Japan. The number of the second year Jinshi-guan students was 134 including about 101 1905-Jinshi students in September 1907, when students were about to leave for Japan. The Jinshi-guan students were able to have a special experience of going over to Japan to study in Tokyo Hosei University due to an unexpected change of situation, the abolition of state examination system in 1905, when they just finished 3 semesters. Many short-course classes or short-course schools were being established for Chinese students in Japan around this time. Although all the expense for their study in Japan was paid by government, Hanlin and Zhongshu were paid annually 240 liang and Bushu was paid 160 liang, which was almost equal to their salaries rather than scholarship. They must have had difficulties due to the unaccustomed foreign language or the strange circumstances in the foreign countries. And their life in foreign countries could not always be full of pleasure, since they held aims to get a higher government post which would be given to the good student making an excellent achievement in the graduation examination conducted by the Educational Department after finishing 1 year or 1.5 year course studying in foreign countries. And curriculum must have been managed much more strictly than in Jinshi-guan. Total 181 Jinshi left for foreign countries to study in the late Ch``ing dynasty, 176 of whom went to Japan. The number of the students studying in Japan began to increase rapidly, and attained the peak in the time of 1905-Jinshi, which was caused by the second year Jinshi-guan students`` oversea study by government expense. The best Chinese elite representing the Chinese culture who had despised the Japanese culture went to study in Japan, which contains a lot of historical meaning. This situation was not imaginable to Chinese before Sino-Japanese war. And this was the Chinese situation just before the revolution. The Jinshi students who had left for Japan returned in late 1907 after finishing 1 year course study begun in October, 1906. I am going to study upon their career after they returned to China later.

의화단(義和團) 사건 후 경사대학당(京師大學堂)의 정지와 재개(再開)

장의식 ( Ui Shik Jang ) 중국사학회 2012 中國史硏究 Vol.77 No.-

The Imperial University(京師大學堂), a symbol of Wu-xu Reform (戊戌改革), survived the coup opening on the 18th of January in 1899. However, the life of the university was vulnerable in the face of the condemnations against its poor management and demands for its abolition. Although the university had been permitted to exist and had got the chance to innovate itself through the aid of minister of education, Sun Jia-nai(孫家내) who had protected the university by means of resignation, it was doomed to suspension because of the Boxer Rebellion(義和團) in July 1900. However, after the Boxer Rebellion in Januaary 1902 Ch`ing government ordered to reopen the Imperial University in the tendency of educational revolution in which Baguwen(八股文) was abolished in the state examination( Ke-ju) and shu-wien were reformed into modern schools, and appointed the minister of law Zhang Bai-xi(張百熙) as minister of education. An enlightened official Zhang Bai-xi made preparations to reopen the Imperial University. And W.A.P. Martin who had been in charge of western subjects tried to found out western teachers who had taught before suspension. However, as soon as he found out them, there happened some troubles in regard with their wages unpaid during 15 months since suspension and their legal status. An extreme tension between two assertions was maintained for a while, with western teachers arguing that the unpayment of their wage was due to the conditions of the university and minister of education arguing that he could not pay the wages because they did not work for the time. Then western teachers asked Chinese department of foreign affairs to solve the problem. This conflicts ended with the resignation of all western teachers. After this Chinese modern education was inclined to model after Japanese educational system rather than western system. Zhang`s report of Feb. 13th 1902 about plan for administration of the Imperial University was a blue-print for its future. The establishment of preparatory courses for the unqualified students and short courses for the officials to learn modern subjects was planned and it was an outstanding change in the organization of the university. On the 15th of August, 1902, Zhang drafted the ``Authorized School Regulation(欽定學堂章程)`` or ``Ren-Yin Educational system(壬 寅學制)``, which was already included in Feb. 13th`s report. And the Imperial University Regulation was made concrete and extended from Feb. 13th`s report. Although Authorized School Regulation existed for just a short time before it was replaced by Presented School Regulation in 1904, it was an active one on which modern schools were established and the above-mentioned preparatory courses and short courses of the Imperial University were founded. After well-organized smooth preparations for the reopening of the university with the financial helps of many provinces, the Imperial University was able to open the short courses with the newly selected students on the 17th of Dec. 1902. The university of the time had a very obvious limit, because the preparatory courses which would make the school a real university could not open. However, the historical meaning of the establishment of short courses could not be devalued, because it was the first large step toward future Beijing University.

청말(淸末) 경사대학당(京師大學堂) 진사관(進士館) 2기생(期生) 진사(進士)들의 일본(日本) 유학 후 향배(向背)

장의식 ( Jang Ui Shik ) 대구사학회 2016 대구사학 Vol.125 No.-

淸朝는 1904년 1월 반포한 `奏定學堂章程`에서 新式 學制의 정착을 위해 각급 學堂 졸업자와 해외 유학생에게 소정의 시험을 거쳐 進士 등 科擧의 科名과 官職을 수여하는 장려 정책을 규정했다. 이로써 科擧가 아닌 통로로 科名 소지자가 대거 배출되었다. 본고는 京師大學堂 진사관 2기 進士들이 대거 日本에 유학하였다가 귀국한 이후의 向背, 특히 그들에 대한 졸업시험과 장려를 분석한 글이다. 진사관 졸업 進士의 다수도 장려 정책으로 待望의 翰林院 編修나 檢討를 授職할 수 있었다. 이러한 사실들은 淸末 民初, 나아가 그 후 중국 사회에서 상당한 영향력을 행사한 科名 및 官職 소지자에 대한 전면적 재검토가 필요하다는 점을 상기시킨다. 科名과 官職 소지 여부 자체가 아니라 어떤 학문적 배경을 가진 科名과 官職 소지자인가가 더욱 중요하다는 것이다. 科名과 官職 소지자라 하더라도 科擧가 아니라 新式 學制나 해외 유학으로 배출된 자가 적지 않았다는 것이다. 기존의 관련 연구들은 이 점을 거의 고려하지 않았다. A lot of degree-holders and office-holders were produced, as the government performed the encouragement policy bestowing various kinds of degrees and titles upon the graduates and the oversea students who studied in foreign countries after examinations. This policy was taken to establish the modern school system which was stipulated in the Imperial School Regulation enacted in January 1904. This essay is an analysis of the attitude of the second Jin-shi Guan students after their return from their oversea study, the graduation examination on them and the government policy. Many of the Jin-shi who graduated from Jin-shi Guan were also given Han-lin Yuan`s Pien-su or Jian-t`ao. This suggests us a necessity to make an overall review upon degree-holders and office-holders who have had a considerable influence upon Chinese society in the late Ch`ing and the early Republic era. It is not so important to know whether to have degrees or offices, but to know what kind of academic background for them to have. For the list of degree-holders and office-holders in this period includes not a few figures graduated from new school system except those who passed the state-examination. Consequently it is a nonsense to think that degree-holders or office-holders were conservative, ignorant of a modern learning, just because they held degrees or offices. It is more worthwhile to analyze what kind of academic background for the intelligent figures to have rather than to classify them according to whether they held degrees or not. This was hardly considered in the researches up to the present.

논문(論文) : 청말(淸末)의 한 블루 오션: 경사대학당(京師大學堂) 역학관(譯學館)

장의식 ( Ui Shik Jang ) 중국사학회 2013 中國史硏究 Vol.83 No.-

Jingshi Tongwen-guan, or the School of Combined Learning in Beijing, the first western educational institution of modern China built in 1862, was forced to stop its activity because of the Boxer Rebellion. The suspension which had been considered to be short at first proceeded in an unexpected direction later. Jingshi Tongwen-guan formally finished its life by being affiliated into the Imperial University, the first national university of Ch`ing China. However, it was not the complete end. Jingshi Tongwen-guan was at first transformed into the Interpretation Department, then finally into the Interpretation Institute in the Imperial University(Jingshi Taxue-tang). It was because the reason and the meaning that Jingshi Tongwen-guan had to exist still remained valid. Breeding up experts for diplomacy and interpretation was desperately needed in China in a new international relationship. On the 2nd of November in 1903, the Interpretation Institute was opened as a temporary irregular 5-year course for special purpose, with 70 students. Each student majored in one of the foreign languages, such as English, German, French, Russian or Japanese. Though they studied general learning as well as specific subject, over half of the curriculum was related with the foreign languages that they are majored in. This institute which later would be absorbed into liberal arts` college of Beijing University, the renamed university of Jingshi Daxue-tang after Revolution of 1911, produced graduates for 5 years. Several lists of classmates were published since the first publication in 1905. The student list published in 1931 is reliable since it is based on the previously published 6 lists and new information supplemented. Total number of those who were recorded in the lists was 443, among which 143 students majored in French, 149 in English. The difference between in the number of the students who were majored in French and English is not distinct, but they are distinctively much more than the students who were majored in other languages: 56 in German, 31 in Russian and 1 in the Japanese language. This was the same in the number of the graduates who studied abroad. 50 among the listed 443 students went abroad to study. Japan was an important nation where 9 of 50 went to study. However, the most popular country to study abroad was France, where 12 students went to study. Those who went to America were 6, and those to England 8. I think we need to study more about what this data means. Students are granted some privileges such as exemption of tuition, free provision of boarding house and school supplies, and free supply of gym clothes and shoes. When he got good grades in exams, he could also receive prize money. After they graduated from the course, they could also get titles like sheng-yuan, Ju-ren, and Jinshi, which were given to the each level of the successful candidates of traditional state exams(ke-ju). They could have opportunity to study abroad, which was a fantastic dream to the contemporary people. 50 out of the total 433 freshmen listed in the student list published in 1931 achieved the opportunity. The first 7 students studying abroad were provided with travel expenses to the destination and living expenses, which policy was thought to last after that. The total number of students studying abroad was 50. In terms of the privileges given to the students, the institute might well be considered “paradise” to the students. However, the institute was not just a real paradise. Students should attend lots of classes, take exams, obey every kind of rules and observe good manners. Instructers always kept their eyes on students` behaviors. Lessens, exams and rigid regulations were waiting for them. The institute was a place of carrots and sticks. The institute produced the first graduates in 1908. Since the first students who entered the school in November of 1903 graduated after the 5-year course, the institute continued to produce graduates for 5 years until 1911 revolution. 학平, 앞의 책, 274쪽. 347 students among 489 entering students were successful in graduating. What made 39 percent of the students failed was possibly a strict courses or self-abandonment. In this institute, 143 faculties were working (96 professors, 52 staffs, non-specified 1, professor and staff at the same time 6). Professors teaching foreign languages were 43 and it was half of the total professor among whom 19 professors were foreigners and 24 were Chinese. The difference of the institute from Jingshi Tongwen-guan naturally has been resulted from the change of society with age. The opportunities of studying abroad were given to 50 students. Japan was one major country with selected by 9 students, but France was the most popular country with 12 students` selection. 8 student to England and 6 to US were dispatched. We can reflect from this phenomenon that the popularity of French language in selecting for the majors is very high and what it means. The graduates took the core position and played the key role in every field of Republican Chinese society on the foundation of their professional knowledge and their career of studying abroad. The list of classmates published in 1931, 20 years after graduation, includes total 443 entering students` names. Their ages were 40s in 1931. Among 443, 182 students are not known about their occupations. Among 260 students whose occupations are known from the list, about 120 students worked for the central administration (40 in the Foreign Office, 26 in the Transport Office, 19 in the Education Office, 14 in the Finance Office, 8 in the Home Office, 5 in the Agriculture and Commerce Office, 3 in the Justice Office, 3 in the Army Office, etc.). The reason that the most graduates worked in the Foreign Office would be because of their professional knowledges. Besides these, 15 graduates worked as district magistrate, and many made their ways into public posts like the national assembly or local assembly. 20 graduates were engaged in teaching, 11 of whom were professors among whom 4 professors of Beijing University were included. 18 worked in the Train Office, 4 became generals of the army, and 4 became high-ranking policemen. Most of the graduates not only assumed key posts in the Foreign Office in the early Republic of China, but important positions in various areas of society like education world, transport world, and political world etc. Since students enjoyed various kinds of privileges like exemption of the tuition, free provision of boarding house, school supplies and gym clothes, reward of traditional titles which were given to the successful candidates of the state exam, scholarship, and opportunities of studying abroad, and mostly assumed key posts of each field of society after graduation, the Interpretation Institute of Jingshi Dawue-Tang was a kind of dream to the Chinese of that time. And the fact that foreign language majors who, as interpreters, had been regarded trivial in traditional period went into the world with assuming important positions in the society reflects the rapid and radical changes of Chinese society induced by new style of education in the revolutionary period.

近代中國의 改革運動

張義植(Jang Ui-Shik) 동양사학회 1995 東洋史學硏究 Vol.51 No.-

청말(淸末)의 기독교계(基督敎系) 학교 : 1, 2차 기독교 선교사 대회 전후(前後)를 중심으로

장의식 ( Jang Ui Shik ) 중국사학회 2018 中國史硏究 Vol.112 No.-

Protestant missionary schools began as an indirect mission to convert Chinese people to Christianity, because it was difficult to get a good result through direct propagation. Education and medical mission were considered a right arm and a left arm of indirect mission respectively. The early protestant school was a subsidiary institute of church, where Christianity and English were taught to poor students. And naturally their concern was focused on the elementary education, since children was regarded easier to convert. The first General Conference of the Protestant Missionaries of China was held in Shanghai in 1877. One of the important topics in this conference, which is noteworthy in the sense that missionaries began to gather together, was groping the direction of the protestant schools. There was a general consensus on the necessity of education in China. However, there was conflict between two perspectives, one of which was an anxiety on the secularization of the education and the other was the insistence that Christian school should provide more advanced high education. This reflects the subtle change in the nature of education in Christian school. The decision was made on the organization of School and Text Book Series Committee in this conference, which was an epoch-making moment for the mutual cooperation and the specialization for the development of school and the publication of textbooks. The number of different levels of schools was 347, and total number of students was 5,917 this time. Girls' schools were more than boys', girls' boarding schools were more than boys', and American missionary schools were more than schools of Europe. The orientation toward advanced high education became stronger since the conference, which means that the missionary education grew more faithful to the original purpose of education itself. The second General Conference of the Protestant Missionaries in China was held, in which the common concerns on Christian School continued to be discussed. According to the report to the conference, 1,296 ministers of 41 Christian societies, 37,287 Christians and 16,836 students were in China. The School and Text Book Series Committee was decided to be reorganized into The Educational Association of China in the conference. The title of this association gives us an impression as if this association represented the Chinese whole education, which was not made by accident but was an expression of their pride that they were promoting the revolution in the Chinese educational system. This pride consolidated the theory that Christian missionary school should be dedicated to the education in itself beyond the mission, supported by the contemporary critics on the traditional Chinese education for secular success. Though they still kept their belief that education will help mission at length, the balance between the education for mission and the education for education itself began to reverse at this instance. Protestant schools grew up to 30,000 students of 1,766 day-schools and 4,300 students of 105 boarding schools and colleges around 1899. And foreign ministers were 2,461, the chinese ministers were 5,071, and believers were 80,682. Compared with the report of the first conference, the number of foreign ministers increased by 1,9 times, believers by 2,2 times and school students increased by two times in 1899. The change that the Chinese minister was twice more than foreign ministers was also noteworthy change in 1899. However, the protestant missionary school was seriously damaged because of the Boxers' Rebellion, with a lot of schools destroyed or stopped. 135 missionaries and 53 children of them were killed. Nevertheless, after the rebellion was suppressed together with the occupation of Beijing by the allied forces of 8 powers, the educational activities of the protestant Christians became more active and expansive. At the same time the colleges were also improved in system and educational level. Though this has partly been criticized as a "cultural invasion" which was promoted exploiting the change in policy of their own imperial states, the Chinese inner change in the recognition and the policies about education should be made consideration for. In 1901 the traditional state examination system was decided to be completely abolished in 10 years later, and a modern education or school system began to be discussed. In January 1904 Authorized School Regulation was promulgated to further promote the educational reforms. Confirmed of the power of the west, Ch'ing court had to launch a series of educational reforms, which situation gave a great assistance to the Christian education in China. The great reform to abolish the state examination system and build modern school system provided both the opportunity and the crisis for the protestant Christian schools. For the position and meaning of the protestant schools would be prominent, when the Chinese modern education did not have any progress. The many opinions that missionary societies should invest more on education were also suggested in the sense of crisis. In 1903 the number protestant schools except elementary schools was 287, and the number of students was 10,158. As modern school system started in China, the weight that Christian schools took in the Chinese education decreased. In 1912 the total number of students in all levels of schools was 3,077,571, among which the number of students attending the Chinese public and private schools was 2,938,634. And the students attending protestant Christian schools were 138,937, which occupied 4.51%, or 5∼6% when the students in Catholic school were added. Especially the students of middle education or high education almost approached 10%. The colleges participating in the Chinese Christian College Association established in 1919 were 14, and the students' portion among all the college students was 19.45%, which was much higher than that of elementary school or middle and high school students. The high portion in high education means that the nature of education had changed from education for mission to education for education. The number of western schools managed by the protestant missionary society was much more than the Chinese modern schools newly established since the period of self-strengthening movement. The western educational system, educational philosophy, educational curriculum, educational methodology, compilation of textbook, classification of learning, English class, 3 levels' school system that they demonstrated were completely new things which had not been seen in the Chinese traditional education system. Above all, the idea of national education that all the people should be educated beyond the difference between the rich and the poor, between man and woman, was able to supply a new inspiration and intuition for the Chinese educational reforms. The development of protestant missionary school in the late Ch'ing provides a good example which shows us that a human education increasingly changes itself to be faithful to the original purpose of education, even though it started from a special or specific purpose like propagation or mission. Further research will be needed to confirm whether this is universal phenomena or special case in China. Anyway missionary school which provided the provocation and the inspiration for the Chinese modern education became faced with the challenge of the Chinese leaders in the modern national education demanding them to be assimilated to the Chinese reality. Educational Right Recovery Movement of 1920s was waiting for them.

논문(論文) : 무술정변(戊戌政變) 직후의 경사대학당(京師大學堂) -그에 대한 시선과 운영 실상-

장의식 ( Ui Shik Jang ) 중국사학회 2011 中國史硏究 Vol.70 No.-

The Imperial University, Jing-shi da-xue-tang was the symbol of reformations pushed ahead by Emperor since 1895. Because of the coup of 1989 almost all the reformations were cancelled and old regime was recovered. Though the Imperial University survived after the coup, the conservatives tried to abolish it continuously, regarding it as "a wen to cut away". This essay starts from the question "what was the background that this university could survive amongst the reactionary conservatist trend after the coup?" The first reason that the Imperial University could survive the conservatist return right after the coup was that the construction of the University did not belong to the essential political reformations though it could be the symbol of reformation. And the second reason was the Emperor`s strong insistency to maintain it. The Emperor ordered that the Imperial University should be maintained for the sake of "the education of talented" even in the edict of confessing his faults in the process of reform movements, which was written under the press of the Dowager Empress after the coup. The third background was that they were afraid that the abolition of the University could cause the interception of the powers which were related with foreign teachers in the University. Although the Imperial University could survive the conservative coup, number of those who attended the entrance examination was just 100 among 1,000 applicants. This of course reflected the change of trend after the coup. The University opened with fixed number of students, 500, on the 18th of January in 1899. However, 4 months later in May 1899, Censor Wu Hung-jia sent a memorial criticizing too small scale of students, too many personnels and too large expenditure with regards to operation of the University. Though this criticism was based on several real factors, it must have represented the conservative point of view. Sun Jia-nai, the minister of education rebuked Wu`s criticism about the University one by one in detail, saying that he had not idea about the University. However, this debate between reformist and conservative betrayed the poor administration of the University. The problem is not just too small scale of students, but the composition of students. The number of Shi-xue-yuan students equivalent to college student was just 20, middle school students were 150, and elementary school students were 20. So Jing-shi da-xue-tang was "a middle-school -centered deformed university rather than a university", which was resulted not just from the University itself but from general viewpoints of the contemporaries. In the end of June, or the beginning of July of 1899, two months after Wu`s memorial, another censor Xi lin demanded the abolition of the Imperial University, criticizing the poor management of the University. The minster of education Sun jia-nai handed in his resignation as a final measure resisting against the abolition of the University. A year since the coup of September in 1898 till July in 1899 was a very important period deciding the life or death of Jing-shi da-xue-tang. Perhaps Sun jia-nai`s desperate resistance against the conservative`s attempt to abolish the University helped this University`s to survive. The Imperial University got over the crisis to prolong its life, and made adjustment of students` composition, decreasing its fixed number of students from 500 to 300 in April 1900, appropriating its budget according to its 300, number students. This decreasing adjustment of the University reflected the University`s real situation and resulted from the adversarial opinions on the University. However, the persistent life of the Imperial University was cut not by conservatives but by I-ho tuan. Students dispersed here and there, the successive Minister of Education Xu jing-cheng and a teacher were killed, and the land of the University was occupied by foreign armies. Whether the murder of Xu Jing-cheng was committed by I-ho tuan on purpose or by chance needs further research which will shed a light on our understanding of the opinions of the people on Jing-shi da-xue-tang.