『줄리어스 시저』: 아이러니

이행수(Haengsoo Lee) 한국셰익스피어학회 2016 셰익스피어 비평 Vol.52 No.3

Believing that Caesar might change his nature after he is crowned, Brutus makes up his mind to join the conspirators planning to kill Caesar. The very motivation by which Brutus joins to conspirators is fairly ironic. By making the ironic judgement, Cassius brings about his own death by killing Caesar. Cassius believed he was repressed under Caesar and could shake off his bondage by killing him but, though Caesar is removed, Cassius keeps bearing the ironical bondage under which his opinions are always neglected by Brutus. When Brutus kills Caesar to prevent the future tyranny of Rome, he talks about the attributes of the spirit of Caesar which is common to all, but ironically he himself shows the spirit of Caesar. As the ghost of dead Caesar tells to Brutus, he has Caesar’s evil spirit. He does not realize this reality until the time of his death. The whole process of the story is ironical in which Brutus and other conspirators construe the situation they are in after their own fashion. By the fact that Brutus is called an honorable man by all other characters Shakespeare seems to ask us whether Brutus is truly an honorable man or a more cunning hypocrite. Because at the beginning of the drama Cassius says to Brutus he becomes a glass in which Brutus can discover his own self. Brutus, however, does not realize his true identity by watching his own self reflected in the glass of Cassius. He shows his ironical self-righteousness to the end and is avenged by killing himself with the same sword he used to kill Caesar. Showing from the individual behaviors of the characters to most of the situations of the drama, many forms of verbal ironies and situational ironies are used by which Shakespeare makes us remind of human beings’ ambivalent nature and many ironies of life itself.

『오셀로』에 나타난 사랑의 양태

이행수(Haengsoo Lee) 한국셰익스피어학회 2014 셰익스피어 비평 Vol.50 No.2

According to the transpersonal psychologist Ken Wilber, an effort to recover the fusion state with the Source or Great Mother by the separate self, Ego, was launched following human beings’ fall from grace in Eden. He asserts the drive to become an integral Whole is called Eros and is satisfied through the unifying effort of love between men and women. In attempting to recover its lost integrity Ego always fails as it is constantly deceived by its bottomless desire for accumulating possessions and seeking approval and sympathy. The characteristics of Ego always focus on identifying Ego with the body, possessions, titles, sex, etc. and thus prevent true unification with the Whole. In Othello Iago plays the role of Satan in Eden. Just as Satan tempts Adam and Eve, encourages them to doubt the Word of God, and eventually coerces them into breaking their connection with the Divine, so does Iago engender suspicion and jealousy in Othello which degrades and eventually destroys his relationship with divine Desdemona. In choosing Othello, a black Moor, Desdemona shows her love to be akin to the Divine Maternal love as she is capable of embracing even Othello’s racial background which many Elizabethans would have considered highly undesirable. Unfortunately because of his Ego, Othello is turned against her by the fabricated story about her dishonesty and comes to despise and destroy her despite her pure love. Through the love story of Othello, a black man, and Desdemona, a white woman, Shakespeare awakens the reader to the universal love between men and women and how it is but a pseudo-wish for becoming Whole, a yearning to be satisfied but ultimately suffering from insatiable want. Shakespeare shows that without the death of the separate self, Ego, it is impossible to accomplish true unification with each other.

『줄리어스 시저』: 힘에의 의지

이행수(Haengsoo Lee) 한국셰익스피어학회 2007 셰익스피어 비평 Vol.43 No.2

In one sense, the universe can be said to operate by the will to power of all living things. The ultimate expression of will to power in a human being is the omnipotence of God. Caesar in Julius Caesar is rather a set of images of the highest object of will to power than a real human being. Therefore, Caesarism can be a symbol of an energy or a power which operates in the universe of human beings. According to Nietzsche, the life of a man is a constant power-struggling process. The motivation of struggling may be different from man to man externally, but generally speaking, the desire and intention to extend his power is based on the same impetus. That impulse is a desire of setting his force over and against other forces. Therefore one's will to power can oppress the other's will to power, which leads to a conflict and an inevitable clash between powers. If we see Julius Caesar superficially, Brutus is a very ambiguous character who takes part in a cruel conspiracy with an honourable intention. Brutus, however, is one of the common people whose ambition is to maximize his power over the will to power of others. As Caesarism is within all human beings it also works in Brutus, even as he is described as an honourable man by Anthony. Brutus is only deceived by himself and blind to reality. When the Spirit of Caesar visits Brutus and says that he is Brutus' evil spirit, he means evil by a self-centered external power which intends to oppress another's will to power. And one of the main themes of Julius Caesar is that if the self-centered will to power is circulated in the universe, treacherous history will recur eternally, like a bloody wheel.

『맥베스』: 에고의 본성

이행수(Haengsoo Lee) 한국셰익스피어학회 2011 셰익스피어 비평 Vol.47 No.1

Throughout the tragedy of Macbeth, Shakespeare investigates the egotistical tendencies of human beings. When indulging in our own ego, we become detached from ourselves and identify more closely with our possessions and titles rather than our ultimate reality. The desire for enhancing one’s egoic identity is built into the very structure of the mind of human beings. To guard against this foolish human tendency, Ken Wilber reminds us that we are one with ultimate Wholeness and Nature and must work to maintain that bond by shedding our attachment to possessions and to our own egos. In order to exemplify the dangers of egoism, Shakespeare uses Macbeth as an illustration of a man possessed by his own ego, who murdered king Duncan and then was cut off from his fellow men, indeed from reality itself. The characteristics of ego in Macbeth is identification himself with the higher power to enlarge himself and incapability of staying at present moment. By killing the traitor, thane of Cawder, Macbeth was entitled to get the title of the thane of Cawder, but he was not satisfied with the present glory and tried to step up to the higher power and failed to enjoy the blessed present moment. The structure of the drama beginning with a war of a treason and ending with a treason again implies that the desire for the higher power, the desire for the immortality of human beings repeats continuously. The ego’s pursuit, however, turns out to be just an illusion which is the detachment from reality. Underlying the detachment from reality is a strong current of fear, the fear of death. To secure himself from the specter of mortality, Macbeth incessantly schemes against his countrymen to tighten his control over his circumstances and secure the power. As he accomplishes increasingly violent and despicable atrocities in the name of self-preservation, he becomes more fearful of the gains he has made and is driven deeper into paranoia and insanity. Through Macbeth’s descent into madness and his brutal obsession with security, Shakespeare provides readers with a chilling example of the menace which an insatiable desire of ego prohibits one from realizing the unity with an ultimate Wholeness.

『베니스의 상인』

이행수(Haengsoo Lee) 한국셰익스피어학회 2002 셰익스피어 비평 Vol.38 No.4

『자에는 자로』의 거울구조

이행수(Haengsoo Lee) 한국셰익스피어학회 2005 셰익스피어 비평 Vol.41 No.1

Measure for Measure has been criticized as an inferior play mainly because the characters have no consistency in their personalities and behaviors. This play, however, can be understood wholly when we see it through the mirror structure. Both Angelo and Isabella, like legalists who follow strict rules of conduct, may seem righteous. But Measure for Measure warns against the subtle dangers of legalism. Measure for Measure has a structure like the parable of the unmerciful servant from the bible, who refuses to forgive a debtor even after his own lord has had much more mercy on himself. Though Angelo may seem righteous, he himself has same lust for women and has sinned as Claudio, whom he wants to judge. Isabella may seem innocent and virtuous, but she has the same cold and inhumane characteristics that Angelo has. The Duke may seem holy and generous, he also turns out to have a lust for women as Angelo and Claudio, which is the main source of sins. All the characters mirror themselves unto the others, but they can not find themselves in the mirrors of others. The main fault of characters is that they do not see themselves rather than that they are conscious hypocrites. This drama tells us that any man may not judge any other while he himself has sins which have to be judged by God. The role of Law is not only to punish the sinners but also to reflect what the sin is. As one should reflect himself in the mirror in order to clean the dirty parts of his face, we have to see ourselves in the mirrors, which personify others. Shakespeare suggests that 'seeing correctly' is the first step to being righteous and keeping social order and moral order in this world.

『줄리어스 시저』의 거울구조

이행수(Lee Haengsoo) 한국셰익스피어학회 2006 셰익스피어 비평 Vol.42 No.3

One of the main themes of Julius Caesar is that a man needs a particular other as a mirror to find his identity. Shakespeare seems to tell us that to know one's real self through his relationships with others around him is one of the important purposes of life. In Julius Caesar, every character takes the role of a mirror to reflect another. Brutus reflects Julius Caesar, Cassius reflects Brutus and Brutus reflects Cassius. Present history reflects previous history as we see when the plebeians welcome Julius Caesar after he conquers Pompey, as they had upheld Pompey as the Lord before. This drama appears to deal with political problems, but actually its focus is more on the problems of pursuing identity than on conflicts of a political nature. Cassius said that he would be a mirror by which Brutus could see himself clearly in a way that he was as yet unaware. Therefore the characteristics of Cassius can be regarded as those of Brutus. The characters of Cassius and Brutus may appear to be very different, but the inner reality is that the character of Brutus reflects that of Cassius. Not a few critics complain about the ambiguous characterization of Brutus. While Cassius is revealed as a cunning and mean politician, the reputation of Brutus is good. Brutus is known as a noble man and is always described as an honourable man, but he may be self-deceptive in the sense that he does not realize his reality even though he does not disguise himself on purpose. Finding oneself through the mirrors around one and awakening to self-deception is not realized by any of the characters in Julius Caesar. It may be one of the messages of the drama that we the readers have to realize; that man must try to find his real identity through his relationships with others who act as mirrors to reflect him, and that this is difficult to achieve.

『베니스의 상인』의 병치와 대조의 구성을 통한 주제

이행수(Haengsoo Lee) 한국셰익스피어학회 2015 셰익스피어 비평 Vol.51 No.3

The Merchant of Venice has a contrasting structure with a number of juxtaposed and contrasting elements in it. Shakespeare leads us to see the duplicity and the dualistic viewpoint of human beings through the contrasting attitudes of a Jew and a Christian. One of the most distinguished contrasting things in the juxtaposed and contrasting elements of Venice and Belmont is the value of the visible things and the invisible things. Venice could be considered a center of commercial trades, while Belmont as a center of romantic love. In Venice, poor Bassanio wants to go to Belmont to woo the rich heiress Portia and to do so he borrows money from his friend Antonio. Antonio doesn’t have cash to afford the needs of Bassanio so he borrows the money from the Jew, Shylock. Antonio shows extreme friendship by risking his own life, while the Jew Shylock wants to have his daughter, Jessica, back as dead with his lost bags of ducats and precious stones. In Venice, the value of visible things is focused on the job of usurer and a bond that Shylock maintains to the end against a Christian, Antonio. In Belmont, suitors come from all over the world to court Portia according to the will of her dead father. It states that who chooses the right casket can marry Portia. One of the suitors, Bassanio chooses the visibly most invaluable lead casket which holds the most valuable picture of Portia. In Venice, Shylock is sentenced to lose all his possessions instead of succeeding in taking the vengeance he desires while in Belmont Bassanio succeeds in marrying Portia and receiving happy news of Antonio’s recovery of his wealth. In Venice the usurer Shylock could not keep his wealth or the daughter that he has tried hard to keep, while in Belmont Bassanio gets the fortune without effort or virtue. Portia is supposed to follow her father’s will but she lets Bassanio get a hint to choose the right casket by her own will. These contrasting elements deliver the message that life depends not only on one’s own will but also on Fortune. The drama ends with the ado about rings that Bassanio and Gratiano gave to the disguised lawyer and the clerk, Portia and Nerrisa. Through this final scene we get the writer’s message that the law or the ring is the only sign of justice or love, not the substantial entity itself. Real value is invisible justice and love, not the mere sign of justice, the law and sign of love, the ring. As mentioned above, the theme ideas of The Merchant of Venice are revealed effectively through the juxtaposed and contrast elements of Venice and Belmont.

인간 본성의 상징으로 본 『안토니와 클레오파트라』

이행수(Haengsoo Lee) 한국셰익스피어학회 2013 셰익스피어 비평 Vol.49 No.3

This article aims to interpret Antony and Cleopatra as an analogy of the mental apparatus of human nature. Through seeing this Roman history play as an analogy of human nature according to Freudian theory of psychoanalysis, we can reconsider why it is regarded as one of the most ambiguous plays of Shakespeare. In Freudian theory, id is considered an original instinctual impulse while ego, the pleasure seeker, carries out the id’s intention. Superego is the apparatus whose function is to chide and repress the ego’s intention. According to this theory, Cleopatra, described as a serpent of old Nile, can be compared to id, specifically the sexual impulse, libido. Antony, one of the Roman triumvirates, neglects his responsibility in Rome and pursues pleasure in Egypt, thus becoming a symbol of the ego in human beings. Octavius Caesar, who holds power in Rome, consistently reprimands Antony for his wantonness, thus playing the role of superego. Egypt, over which Cleopatra reigns, can be regarded as a barbarian world and Rome, the domain of Caesar, a world of law and order. Antony leaves Egypt for Rome and Rome for Egypt as the ego must in order to relate to the external reality. This creates a distance between the lovers. In being so distant, their mutual desire for unity also go astray. Ultimately, the desire to complete their love is accomplished only through death. Much like the instinctual id can not be completed by ego as it is controlled and repressed by superego, the love between Antony and Cleopatra fails. In their defeat in the Actium War, Antony and Cleopatra, in being beset by Caesar, exemplified how the needs of ego and id(Antony and Cleopatra) are irreconcilable with those of the superego, Caesar. Through the triumph of Caesar, the superego, and the suggestion of the renewal of the life force of the two lovers, there seems to be a kind of comic hope at the end of drama. Because each character represents a part of human nature, the main characters in this drama necessarily look inconsistent and unrealistic with ambiguous and incompatible personalities. If we see the theme of this drama as not merely Antony’s love for Cleopatra, but their roles as symbols of the parts of human nature, their ambiguity can be understood. Through dramatization of the Plutarch’s Lives, Shakespeare again shows us truth about human nature.

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