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노헌균(Heongyun Rho) 한국영미문학교육학회 2013 영미문학교육 Vol.17 No.3

The film Thunderheart deals with the conflicts between Native American nationalism and anti-nationalism on Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, South Dakota, in the 1970s. Those who stick to the former insist on maintaining Native American's traditions, such as sweat lodge, powwow, and their old ways of life to regenerate their dying culture, while those who believe in the latter argue that Native Americans should be more active in adjusting to the mainstream American culture. The two groups are represented by Aboriginal Rights Movement(ARM) and Guardians of the Oglala Nation(GOONS) respectively. ARM agrees with the statement: "Never forget: America was not settled. It was conquered." By taking such political gestures, it has been militant, radical, and aggressive. GOONS, however, has suggested to bring American democracy and capitalism into their reservations to modernize their third world-like community. While the two parties have been in conflict for the past decades, their towns have been degenerated into poverty, hopelessness, and endless violence. What should be the best ways to save the Native Americans on reservations? I analyze both positive and negative arguments in the two sides. And, I finally agree with Raymond Levoi, a mixedblood FBI agent, who goes public to awaken the long lasting issues between Native Americans and white Americans as well as Indian nationalists and anti-nationalists.

연어의 부활을 통한 인디언 경제 문화재건 : 셔만 알렉시의 『낡은 셔츠와 새 피부』, 『사랑한다고 말하지 않아도 돼요:비망록』, 영화 <물로 연합하다>를 중심으로

노헌균(Rho, Heongyun) 부산대학교 인문학연구소 2022 코기토 Vol.- No.97

스포케인 인디언 작가 셔만 알렉시는 인디언 보호구역의 고질적인 문제인 가난을 해결하기 위해서는 인디언의 정체성을 “원주민”에서 “원주민 이민자”로 재정립할 것을 자신의 문학세계에서 주장해왔다. 그는 미국 대륙에서 원주민이라는 개념과 문화적으로 이민자라는 두 개의 개념을 동시에 양립시키기를 원하였다. 겉으로 보기에 자가당착적인 이 두개의 개념을 혼용함으로써 그는 인디언 급진주의자들과 백인 미국학 학자들 모두에게서 공격을 받아왔다. 그러나 그는 자신의 창작집 『낡은 셔츠와 새 피부』, 『사랑한다고 말하지 않아도 돼요:비망록』과 내레이터로 참여한 영화 <물로 연합하다>에서 콜롬비아강에서 사라진 연어를 복귀시킴으로써 자신의 제안이 유효할 수 있음을 예시하였다. 알렉시와 콜롬비아강 부족연합체는 ‘연어 사람들’이라는 사라진 인디언 정체성을 회복하고, 아메리카 인디언 식의 자본주의를 확립하기 위하여 연어를 다시 부활시키는 공동 작업을 수행하였다. 알렉시는 “그랜드 쿨리 댐이 우리의 야생 연어를 살육한 이후, 우리는 스포케인 인디언이기를 멈추었고 짝퉁 스포케인 인디언이 되었다”라고 믿고 있다. 야생 연어를 인디언 땅에 다시 부활시킴으로써, 아메리카 인디언들은 한편으로 연어 관련 전통과 문화적 유산과 같은 상실한 토착성을 되찾을 수 있고, 또 다른 한편으로 그랜드 쿨리 댐 조약에 새 파트너로 참가하여 연어 친화적인 콜롬비아강에 관광객들을 불러들임으로써 경제적 이익을 기대할 수 있다. Spokane Indian writer Sherman Alexie has insisted Native Americans are needed to re-define their identities as “indigenous immigrants” in order to overcome the chronic poverty on reservations in his whole career. He wanted to combine two different ideas, indigenous to the land but early settlers in the Americas, at the same time. His seemingly self-contradictory arguments, however, have been challenged by both Native American activists and white American studies scholars. In his works Old Shirts & New Skins, You Don’t Have to Say You Love Me: A Memoir, and United by Water as a film narrator, he exemplifies how his suggestions might work by recovering the disappeared summer chinook salmon to the Columbia River. Alexie and Upper Columbia United Tribes(UCUT) have worked together to reintroduce the salmon not only to revive their lost identities as ‘salmon people’ but also to establish Native American version of capitalism. Alexie believes “after The GRAND Coulee Dam murdered our wild salmon, we stopped being Spokane Indians and became a Paraphrase of Spokane Indians.” By bringing back the wild salmon to the river, Native Americans can take back their lost indigenousness including salmon related traditions and cultural legacy on the one hand, and expect to make economic benefits by participating in the Grand Coulee Dam Treaty as new partners and attracting tourists to salmon-friendly Columbia River on the other.

플립 러닝을 적용한 <동시대 미국문학> 수업 사례 연구

노헌균(Heongyun Rho) 한국영미문학교육학회 2017 영미문학교육 Vol.21 No.3

This paper explains the whole procedures of the class Contemporary American Literature taught via flipped learning methodology in Fall, 2016. The class is designed to specify principles composed by Flipped Learning Network (FLN). The FLN defines flipped learning as “a pedagogical approach in which direct instruction moves from the group learning space to the individual learning space, and the resulting group space is transformed into a dynamic, interactive learning environment where the educator guides students as they apply concepts and engage creatively in the subject matter.” In organizing classes, the FLN also recommends to observe “the four pillars of F-L-I-P: flexible environment, learning culture, intentional content, and professional educator.” Keeping in mind the definitions and philosophies set by the FLN, I have taught the Contemporary American Literature to mostly English majors for five weeks. Unlike the traditional classes in which students listen to the lectures and passively respond when asked, the flipped learning class motivated and engaged most students so strongly that the students showed high creativity, volunteering spirits, active class participation, and gradually learned how to work together with their colleagues. They also learned how to research specific topics and to arrange their knowledge with that of their classmates. They were quite satisfied with the new and experimental class in spite of a lot of time demanding assignments and efforts to complete the off-line classes. The flipped learning methodology, however, proves to be most adequate to project-oriented classes rather than classes of academic achievement.

Catharine Maria Sedgwick`s Hope Leslie: The Revision of Early American Society

노헌균 ( Heon Gyun Rho ) 근대영미소설학회 2000 근대 영미소설 Vol.7 No.1

캐서린 마리아 쎄지윅(Catharine Maria Sedgwick)은 그녀의 소설 『호프 레즐리』(Hope Leslie)에서 초기 미국 사회를 재조명하고 있다. 대부분의 19세기 미국 여류 작가들처럼 쎄지윅은 가족을 소재로 한 소설(domestic novel)에 관심이 있었지만 자유롭고 진보주의적인 가정에서 자란 그녀는 『호프 레즐리』에서 17세기의 미국 역사와 정치를 새로운 시각으로 읽고 있다. 19세기 초 미국 사회에서 싹트기 시작한 정치적 평등주의(political egalitarianism)는 그녀의 사상에 많은 영향을 주었으며 실지로 그녀는 정치에 참여하고 싶어했으나 19세기의 여성에게는 꿈도 꿀 수 없는 일이었다. 그녀는 이러한 사회적 억압이 19세기의 산물이 아니라 초기 미국 사회의 유산임을 깨닫고 이 모순에 저항한다. 그녀의 항거방식은 직접적인 사회 운동이 아니라 작가로서의 통찰력과 비판정신을 무기로 삼아 "상상의 도피"(imaginative escape) 형식을 취한다. 초기 미국 사회는, 청교도들의 이상과는 달리, 자유, 평등, 유연성, 자연미가 없는 권위, 위계질서, 독단, 억압의 세계이다. 그리고 청교도들의 역사관은 호전적이어서 서양의 이분법적 사고방식-열등과 우등 두 세계- 만이 역사에 존재하며, 그 기준은 청교도들의 독단에 의해 설정되어 우등한 민족이 그보다 못한 민족을 말살하는 것을 당연시 여긴다. 소설 『호프 레즐리』에서 작가는 이러한 전통에 의문을 제시하고 나아가 초기 미국 사회를 패러디함과 동시에 재구성한다. 그것은 이 작품의 주인공이 초기 미국 사회의 골격을 만드는 데 절대적 기여를 한 주지사 윈쓰롭(Governor Winthrop)이나 남성 원로가 아니라 미숙하지만 남성 이상의 기개와 지혜를 가진 두 여성 호프 레즐리와 마가위스카(Magawisca)인 점에서 구체적으로 드러난다. 이 두 인물은 각각 청교도 사회와 인디안 사회에서 남성 중심의 기존 질서를 다시 한번 생각게 만든다. 19세기 초 인디안에 대한 정책이 말살과 유화의 적절한 조화에 의하여 진행되고 19세기말에 이르러서는 완전한 정복에 종지부를 찍는데 이러한 미국의 "폭력을 통한 부활"의 역사를 쎄지윅은 마가위스카의 숭고한 행동들에 의하여 다시 한번 물어본다. 이 소설의 부제 "매사추세츠주의 초기 시대"(Early Times in the Massachusetts)가 암시하는 바와 같이 이 소설은 역사를 다루고 있다. 그러나 그 역사는 쎄지윅의 "상상의 도피"를 통해 재고된 역사이다.

미스 나바호 네이션을 통해서 바라본 아메리카 인디언 여성성 연구

노헌균 ( Heongyun Rho ) 서울대학교 미국학연구소 2023 미국학 Vol.46 No.1

The Navajo Nation has held Miss Navajo Nation pageant “to exemplify the essence of White Shell Woman” and to select those who will become “the Goodwill Ambassador.” The contestants show their capacities: making fire, cooking traditional food, telling Navajo stories, and performing ceremonies. The highlights of the contest are to display the sheep butchering and the fluency of the Navajo language. It is Navajo woman’s indigenous rights to handle the sheep so that the sheep butchering is indispensable for examining Navajo womanhood. The Navajo language test is also important since the Navajo people have been forced to speak English only at Indian boarding schools. In spite of a Navajo feminist historian Jennifer Denetdale’s criticism that the pageant will limit Navajo women within the arena of “Victorian ideals of purity, chastity, and domesticity,” Navajo people expect the contest will contribute to overcoming colonialism and sexism and connecting reservations with outer worlds.

Michael Mann s The Last of the Mohicans: The Declaration of Another(New) Colonialism

노헌균(Heong yun Rho) 한국영미어문학회 2016 영미어문학 Vol.- No.122

This paper aims to investigate how a film director, Michael Man manipulates James Fenimore Cooper s 1826 novel, The Last of the Mohicans and James L. Conway s 1977 film with the same title to declare that the year 1992 is the beginning of another(new) colonialism to Native Americans. The Indians have tried to overcome colonialism by applying the post-colonialism since the mid-twentieth century, consistently arguing for the returning of the stolen land, the recovery of lost sovereignty, and the regeneration of forgotten cultural heritage. In order to react to the Indians s resistant efforts, Michael Mann visualizes in his film why and how the Native Americans have to either get Americanized or to vanish by making binary divisions, the Noble Savage and the Vicious Savage, and by demonstrating the superiority of European civilization. In conclusion, I try to evaluate if Michael Mann s argument can be sustainable in the discourse of Native Americans in contemporary era and to indicate the wide disparities between the visual images of Indians in films and their real life on reservations.

리차드 포드의 『독립기념일』: 미국 문화코드로서 전통이데올로기에 대한 리뷰

노헌균 ( Heon Gyun Rho ) 미국소설학회 2009 미국소설 Vol.16 No.1

레즐리 실코의 『죽은 자들의 연감』: 아메리카 인디언 문화 부활선언문

노헌균 ( Heong Yun Rho ) 미국소설학회 2011 미국소설 Vol.18 No.3

Leslie Marmon Silko reviews the past 500 years of American culture since Christopher Columbus`s arrival in the Bahamas in 1492 in Almanac of the Dead. Rather than accepting the dominant Euro-American conception of cultural imperialism in the Americas, Silko is indignant in the whole sphere of colonization to Native Americans, muckraking every evil project done to them deliberately, and accusing the Euro-Americans of the exploitation they have made in the guise of civilization. Silko identifies the Euro-Americans as vampire capitalists who are descendants of the misogynistic, arrogantly hierarchical, and egocentric traditions of Western liberal individualism. In order to save Native Americans from the European capitalists and colonialists, Silko strongly insists that politically radical actions like Ghost Dance and guerilla tactics are highly urgent before Native Americans completely disappear in the Americas. Silko borrows the ideas of regeneration of Native American culture from such traditional Native American thinkers as Dee Brown, Paula Gunn Allen, Arnold Krupat, and A. LaVonne Brown Ruoff. Combining the four theoreticians` arguments together, Silko implies throughout the novel that the Americas should be returned to their native inhabitants.

셔만 알렉시의 『어느 파트타임 인디언의 진짜 일기』: 현대 미국사회에서 인디언으로 살아남기 위한 전략으로서의 트랜스내셔널리즘

노헌균 ( Heong Yun Rho ) 미국소설학회 2014 미국소설 Vol.21 No.1

Sherman Alexie insists that transnationalism will be the best strategy for Native Americans to survive in contemporary America in The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian. The transnationalism in this article refers to Shari M. Huhndorf`s idea, “alliances among the tribes and the social structures and practices that transcend their boundaries, as well as processes on a global scale such as colonialism and capitalism,” and the conception of “the new man” in J. Hector St. John de Crevecoeur`s Letters from an American Farmer. This article specifies how and why Arnold Spirit Jr., the protagonist of the novel, makes various efforts to overcome the nationalism agenda on Spokane Indian Reservation. By crossing over the cultural boundaries between Wellpinit High School on reservation and Reardan High School in a white town, he shows not so much the disadvantages of transnationalism as the benefits of making an apple of himself, “red on the outside and white on the inside.” Based mainly on the two theoreticians`s ideas in analyzing Junior`s transformative practices, this article investigates if Alexie`s transnationalism can replace the dominant ideologies on reservation.

셔만 알렉시의 『인디언 보호구역 블루스』: 블루스 음악을 통한 인디언 문화의 부활

노헌균 ( Heon Gyun Rho ) 한국영미문화학회 2010 영미문화 Vol.10 No.3

This thesis investigates strategies of how Native Americans try to recover their lost traditions and get competitive in contemporary American society in Sherman Alexie`s Reservation Blues. Traditionally it has been believed that Native Americans have sought a series of Messiahs after the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, when the Ghost Dance was regarded as their Messiah. Sherman Alexie suggests a couple of alternatives that might replace the lost Messiah in his work: basketball and blues music. The younger Indian generations have strong confidence in the power of blues music composed of modern blues rhythm and traditional Indian lyrics, while the older Indian ones practice basketball because of several similarities between basketball and their ancient wars. The latter Indians take their sport game as nothing more than entertainment even though they can find divine cultural heritage from the sport. The former Indians, however, take an advantage of blues music as a means of showing their pride in the long history of Native Americans as well as overcoming exclusive Indian culture on reservation. Then what makes Alexie think that the blues music can become contemporary Messiah to Indians? As Houston A. Baker insists, the first blues artists took as their musical inspiration the train, which promised movement - representing the freedoms of physical and social/economic movement. It is the spirits of blues music like adventure, change, liberty, crossing boundaries, and hybridity that Alexie expects to achieve through Coyote Springs, a young Indian blues group.