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Confucian “Negative Ethics” for a Global World?
Hans-Georg Moeller(한스 게오르그 묄러) 한국동양철학회 2010 동양철학 Vol.0 No.34
최근 유교 윤리학이 당대 세계 사회에서 아직도 유효하게 기능할 수 있는지에 대하여 철학적 토론이 진행되었다. 어떤 이들은 유교의 윤리학은, 특히 가족관계의 중요성을 강조하는 측면에 있어서는, 진정한 근대화에 장애가 될 것이며, 결국 족벌정치나 부패를 정당화 하는 도구로 쓰일 것이라고 주장한다. 이 견해에 따르면 유교는 보편적인 윤리 원칙과 관련된 모든 갈등 상황에서 자기 가족이나 자기가 속한 그룹의 이해를 우선시하는 것을 허용한다. 이 입장을 비판하는 사람들은 공자는 공개적으로 족벌정치나 부패를 옹호한 적이 없었으며, 모든 사람을 감싸는 인자한(仁) 도덕 원리를 반대한 적이 없다는 것을 지적하였다. 그들의 주요 주장은 유교의 도덕가치는 보편타당한 것이고 반드시 가족이나 친구 사이에서만 통행되는 것이 아니라는 것이었다. 이들의 해석에 따르면 인의(仁義)와 같은 덕목은 어떤 서양의 기본적인 도덕 가치와 비교해도 손색없는 보편적인 도덕원칙으로 기능할 수 있다고 한다. 내가 보기에는 유교적 도덕관에 대한 좀 더 강한 변론이 제기될 수 있다고 생각한다. 나는 이 논문에서 유교 윤리학이 서양 도덕 철학의 하나의 대안이 될 수 있다고 주장하고자 한다. 나에게 있어 유교 윤리학은 어떤 보편적인 도덕기준들을 규정하려고 한 것이 아니며, 바로 그렇기 때문에 처음에는 이것이 역설적으로 보일지는 모르겠으나, 이것이 대다수의 서양 도덕 철학보다도 훨씬 더 실천가능하고, 유연하며, ‘보편화 될 수 있는’ 가능성이 있는 것이다. 나는 고금의 서양 ‘근본주의적 윤리’에 대한 유교의 ‘소극적 윤리’의 우월성을 보여주려고 한다. 유교의 ‘소극적 윤리학’은 인간의 우수성은 도덕적 혹은 법률적 기준에 철저하게 복종하는 것으로써(만) 평가될 수 없다고 말한다. 공자에게 있어 ‘탁월한’ 삶을 산다는 것은 단지 도덕적 올바름만 아우르는 것이 아니다. 이런 의미에서 공자는 윤리학의 한계를 주장하며, 나아가 어떤 경우에는 특정한 윤리원칙들을 부정하고 가족이나 친구에 대한 행위자의 감정과 같은 것에 기반한 행위를 더 우선시하는 ‘소극적 윤리학’을 주장하고 있다. 개인적으로 이런 것은 소위 ‘전 세계적인’ 윤리적 원칙들을 세울 것을 요구하는 현대의 광범위한 근본주의적 요구에 관련하여, 혹은 대항하여 매우 추천할 만한 태도라고 사료된다. A recent philosophical debate discussed the question if Confucian ethics could still have a function in contemporary world society. Some described Confucian ethics, particularly with respect to its focus on the importance of family relations, as an impediment for true modernization which, in the final end, would only serve as a justification of nepotism and corruption. According to this view, Confucianism allows for giving precedence to the interests of your family or of the group to which you feel you belong in all cases where those are in conflict with general ethical principles. Critics of this position pointed out that Confucius did not explicitly advocate nepotism, and much less corruption, and that he was not opposed to benevolent moral principles that are binding for everyone. The main argument was that Confucian moral values are indeed universally valid, and not only among family members or friends. Such virtues as humaneness (ren) or righteousness (yi), according to these interpreters, can serve as much as general moral principles as any Western set of basic moral values. In my view, it is possible to come up with a stronger defence of Confucian morality In my view, Confucian ethics did not aim at defining a specific set of universal moral norms, and is precisely therefore, even though this may seem paradoxical at first, much more practical, flexible, and “universalizable” than most Western moral philosophies. I will try to point out the advantages of a Confucian “negative ethics” over traditional and contemporary Western “fundamentalist ethics.” Confucian “negative ethics” says that human excellence cannot be measured by strict obedience to moral or legal norms. Living an excellent life, for Confucius, encompasses more than only ethical correctness. In this sense, Confucius argues for the limitations of ethics, or for a “negative ethics” that negates certain ethical principles in certain situations, and privileges a behavior that is based on, for instance, the feelings one has towards one's family members or friends. I think that this is a very recommendable attitude, particular with respect and in opposition to contemporary demands for a global “fundamentalist” set of supposedly “universal” ethical rules.
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Xu, Yongbin,Moeller, Arne,Jun, So-Young,Le, Minho,Yoon, Bo-Young,Kim, Jin-Sik,Lee, Kangseok,Ha, Nam-Chul American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Bi 2012 The Journal of biological chemistry Vol.287 No.15
<P>Gram-negative bacteria are capable of expelling diverse xenobiotic substances from within the cell by use of three-component efflux pumps in which the energy-activated inner membrane transporter is connected to the outer membrane channel protein via the membrane fusion protein. In this work, we describe the crystal structure of the membrane fusion protein MexA from the <I>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</I> MexAB-OprM pump in the hexameric ring arrangement. Electron microscopy study on the chimeric complex of MexA and the outer membrane protein OprM reveals that MexA makes a tip-to-tip interaction with OprM, which suggests a docking model for MexA and OprM. This docking model agrees well with genetic results and depicts detailed interactions. Opening of the OprM channel is accompanied by the simultaneous exposure of a protein structure resembling a six-bladed cogwheel, which intermeshes with the complementary cogwheel structure in the MexA hexamer. Taken together, we suggest an assembly and channel opening model for the MexAB-OprM pump. This study provides a better understanding of multidrug resistance in Gram-negative bacteria.</P>
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Ahn, Jinsoo,Oh, Shin-Ae,Suh, Yeunsu,Moeller, Steven J,Lee, Kichoon American Oil Chemists' Society 2013 Lipids Vol.48 No.3
<P>Adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL), catalyzing the initial step of hydrolysis of triacylglycerol (TAG) in adipocytes, has been known to be inhibited by G0/G1 switch gene 2 (G0S2). In this study, we report the porcine G0S2 cDNA and amino acid sequences as well as the expression level of porcine G0S2. The porcine G0S2 mRNA was abundantly expressed in adipose tissue and liver among various tissues. In adipose tissue, porcine G0S2 expression was 16-fold higher in the fat cell fraction than the stromal vascular fraction. The G0S2 level increased significantly during adipogenesis in vitro and in vivo. These data indicate that G0S2 expression is closely associated with lipid accumulation and adipogenesis. Considering G0S2 as an inhibitor of cell proliferation, the relatively low levels of G0S2 in preadipocytes and adipose tissues of fetal and neonatal pigs compared to adipocytes and adipose tissues of adult pigs may allow the fast cell proliferation rates. Further studies showed that a short-term 24-h fast down-regulated G0S2 expression and increased ATGL expression in adipose tissue; however, a long-term calorie restriction for 8?days had no influence on the level of G0S2 but increased ATGL expression. Therefore, porcine G0S2, which is both a negative regulator of ATGL-mediated lipolysis and cell proliferation in adipose tissue, can be down-regulated in vivo by a short-term 24-h fast followed by increased ATGL-mediated lipolysis.</P>
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Thomas Martin,Yi Wang,Shams Rashid,Xingfeng Shao,Steen Moeller,Peng Hu,Kyunghyun Sung,Danny J.J. Wang 대한자기공명의과학회 2017 Investigative Magnetic Resonance Imaging Vol.21 No.4
Purpose: To develop a novel combination of controlled aliasing in parallel imaging results in higher acceleration (CAIPIRINHA) with integrated SSFP (CAIPI-iSSFP) for accelerated SSFP imaging without banding artifacts at 3T. Materials and Methods: CAIPI-iSSFP was developed by adding a dephasing gradient to the balanced SSFP (bSSFP) pulse sequence with a gradient area that results in 2π dephasing across a single pixel. Extended phase graph (EPG) simulations were performed to show the signal behaviors of iSSFP, bSSFP, and RF-spoiled gradient echo (SPGR) sequences. In vivo experiments were performed for brain and abdominal imaging at 3T with simultaneous multi-slice (SMS) acceleration factors of 2, 3 and 4 with CAIPI-iSSFP and CAIPI-bSSFP. The image quality was evaluated by measuring the relative contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) and by qualitatively assessing banding artifact removal in the brain. Results: Banding artifacts were removed using CAIPI-iSSFP compared to CAIPI-bSSFP up to an SMS factor of 4 and 3 on brain and liver imaging, respectively. The relative CNRs between gray and white matter were on average 18% lower in CAIPI-iSSFP compared to that of CAIPI-bSSFP. Conclusion: This study demonstrated that CAIPI-iSSFP provides up to a factor of four acceleration, while minimizing the banding artifacts with up to a 20% decrease in the relative CNR.
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Martin, Thomas,Wang, Yi,Rashid, Shams,Shao, Xingfeng,Moeller, Steen,Hu, Peng,Sung, Kyunghyun,Wang, Danny JJ Korean Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine 2017 Investigative Magnetic Resonance Imaging Vol.21 No.4
Purpose: To develop a novel combination of controlled aliasing in parallel imaging results in higher acceleration (CAIPIRINHA) with integrated SSFP (CAIPI-iSSFP) for accelerated SSFP imaging without banding artifacts at 3T. Materials and Methods: CAIPI-iSSFP was developed by adding a dephasing gradient to the balanced SSFP (bSSFP) pulse sequence with a gradient area that results in $2{\pi}$ dephasing across a single pixel. Extended phase graph (EPG) simulations were performed to show the signal behaviors of iSSFP, bSSFP, and RF-spoiled gradient echo (SPGR) sequences. In vivo experiments were performed for brain and abdominal imaging at 3T with simultaneous multi-slice (SMS) acceleration factors of 2, 3 and 4 with CAIPI-iSSFP and CAIPI-bSSFP. The image quality was evaluated by measuring the relative contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) and by qualitatively assessing banding artifact removal in the brain. Results: Banding artifacts were removed using CAIPI-iSSFP compared to CAIPI-bSSFP up to an SMS factor of 4 and 3 on brain and liver imaging, respectively. The relative CNRs between gray and white matter were on average 18% lower in CAIPI-iSSFP compared to that of CAIPI-bSSFP. Conclusion: This study demonstrated that CAIPI-iSSFP provides up to a factor of four acceleration, while minimizing the banding artifacts with up to a 20% decrease in the relative CNR.
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