쿠바의 관광산업과 히네테리스모

주종택(Joo, Jong-Taick) 한국라틴아메리카학회 2014 라틴아메리카연구 Vol.27 No.4

With the development of tourism in Cuba, the number of jineteros working for foreign tourists has increased rapidly. Jineterismo is an economic strategy inevitably chosen by the poor Cubans who are suffering from persistent low wages and lack of employment. In the Cuban society in which the majority of Cubans are faced with severe economic difficulties, the increase of jineteros is having a very significant impact on the socio-economic changes. In particular, jineterismo has provided new opportunities for mulattoes and blacks who have endured social discrimination in Cuba. Although still limited, the transformation of some jineteros into small-scale, self-employed workers has also been confirmed. In this regard, jineterismo can facilitate the conjunction of socialism and capitalism in the closed socialist economy by helping in the emergence of entrepreneurs or innovators. In terms of socio-cultural aspects, jineterismo can play an important role in shaping values and a new worldview, which differ from socialist ideology. Of course, the economic activities of jineteros are illegal in principle, and frequently their behaviors may threaten the existing social order in Cuba. But, it cannot be denied that jineteros take the role of cultural brokers between foreign tourists and Cubans.

멕시코 농촌지역에서의 마치스모의 사회적 의미와 변화

주종택(Jong Taick Joo) 서울대학교 비교문화연구소 2007 비교문화연구 Vol.13 No.1

중남미 이주노동자의 이주과정과 사회문화적 적응

주종택(Joo, Jong?Taick) 한국라틴아메리카학회 2012 라틴아메리카연구 Vol.25 No.1

Latin American migrant workers in Korea have kept many unique characteristics in their migration history and process, and their patterns of adaptation can be compared with their counterparts in Japan. The workers’ migration from Latin American to Korea is made difficult by long distances and linguistic and cultural differences. Nevertheless, after following the international labor migration of Nikkeijin and other Latin Americans to Japan, some workers were able to come to Korea to find work. However, unlike their counterparts in Japan, Latin American migrant workers in Korea did not become an object of attention in the society and they could not exert an extensive influence in Korea because their population is too small. Moreover, Korean immigrants in Latin America have formed different types of transnational communities in Latin America compared with Nikkeijin, so they were unable to help the migrant workers to adapt themselves smoothly to the Korean society. Accordingly Latin American migrant workers in Korea have taken a different route in their efforts to participate in local economic and sociocultural activities. For example, they hesitate to be exposed to the wider society and they hide their cultural differences as much as possible. Nevertheless, they have been included in the Korean sociocultural structure and are even evaluated positively by some distinctive Korean cultural elements. Frequently it may not be useful in economic terms to predict or evaluate problems related with causes, processes and historical backgrounds, patterns, contents, effects and results of labor migration. Even though labor migration can take place where significant economic differences exist between the migrant-sending and migrant-receiving societies, the decision-making processes of labor migration and the adaptive processes of migrants are tremendously affected by diverse sociocultural factors. In part, migrant workers from Latin America share similar features with migrants from China or other parts of Asia. However, Latin American migrants maintain their own unique characteristics because of the earlier migrants’ prior experiences in Japan and their ways of accepting or declining new cultural elements in Korea.

멕시코 원주민 정체성의 특징과 문화적 의미

주종택(Jong Taick Joo) 한국문화인류학회 2002 韓國文化人類學 Vol.35 No.1

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라틴 아메리카의 사회변화와 축제 : 겔라겟사와 카니발의 사례

주종택(Jong-Taick Joo) 한국라틴아메리카학회 2004 라틴아메리카연구 Vol.17 No.3

Throughout the history of Latin America, festivals have played an important role in shaping everyday lives of the people. In the pre-Columbian and colonial society, rural indigenous societies had actively participated in various festivals to celebrate certain essential communal events or activities. These festivals were used to facilitate the social cohesion of members and to maintain social identity in a given society. Especially, Latin American festivals, like other cultural aspects, are distinguished by their syncretic nature combining the indigenous and European cultures. In the contemporary societies, many festivals have been transformed since the independence from Europe in relation to the concomitant socioeconomic and cultural changes. For example, many festivals are highly commercialized to gain economic profits and their religious meanings have been gradually weakened because of the declining importance of religion in the daily lives of the contemporary society. These phenomena can be clearly manifested in the Guelaguetza of Oaxaca, Mexico and Carnival of Rio, Brazil. In Guelaguetza, originated in indigenous Zapotec custom of gift-giving, people celebrated a goddess in charge of corn, an indispensable agricultural product in the indigenous societies, during the rainy season of July. Many people in the surrounding areas were voluntarily participating in this event to share what they produced in their own communities. However during the colonial period, christian forms and meanings were included in this festival by the Spanish conquistadores. Nowadays, Guelaguetza is controlled by the government agency and people have to pay to be admitted to this festival held in an amphitheater. Rio's Carnival has been heavily influenced by the European and African cultures at the same time. But it has been slowly losing its Christian characteristics and adding new elements to attract more customers in the contemporary society due to endless efforts to make it more lucrative one by commercial enterprises and professional entertainers. Rather than focusing on the solidarity and social homogeneity among black participants, it aims at increasing economic profits as a culture industry. To conclude, contemporary Latin American festivals have been undergone tremendous changes and become a part of popular culture as they are controlled by business-oriented entrepreneurs.

쿠바의 관광산업과 감정노동, 그리고 친밀성의 경제

주종택(Joo, Jong-Taick) 한국라틴아메리카학회 2017 라틴아메리카연구 Vol.30 No.4

As the Cuban economic situation has been deteriorating, many Cuban people are eager to participate in the tourism industry. Since incomes in the tourism sector are far higher than those of other sectors, some people are interested in jobs providing services to tourists. With the increasing number of people dealing with the tourists from overseas, emotional labor can be gradually developed in Cuba. Some people working in the tourism sector have begun to realize that if they provide better service to foreign tourists or maintain intimate relationships with them, they can acquire more economic profits or benefits. Compared to the capitalist society where companies direct their workers to practice emotional labor to increase their profitability, the pattern of emotional labor found in Cuba is slightly different. Rather than implementing emotional labor passively for organizational needs, many people are actively and positively pursuing it for their own needs. The main characteristics of the activities related to emotional labor in Cuba are as follows. First, emotional labor or the economies of intimacy are revealed by the voluntary choices of individuals rather than groups or organizations. Recently, some of those engaged in businesses providing services for foreign tourists have come to think that they can increase their economic interests if they apply emotional labor to their customers. In this way, the practice of emotional labor, or the economies of intimacy, has begun to emerge in Cuba. Second, in Cuba, emotional labor is only noticeable in the tourism sector. It is relatively rare in other sectors of the economy. This is mainly due to the fact that emotional labor is directly related to the economic interests in the tourism sector providing services to foreign tourists. Third, in Cuba, individual strategies are based on the entrepreneur’s own decision rather than that of an organization; hence, the strategies of emotional labor or the economies of intimacy are very diverse owing to the various ways of conducting business while avoiding governmental regulation. Individuals working in the tourism industry can select appropriate types of emotional labor considering their unique necessities and socioeconomic situations.

불명확한 메스띠소 정체 의식 : 멕시코 농촌 지역의 종족성의 정치 경제

주종택 (Jong Taick Joo) 한국문화인류학회 1997 韓國文化人類學 Vol.30 No.1

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멕시코의 원주민 정책과 종족성 : 메스티소와 원주민의 관계

주종택(Jong-Taick Joo) 한국라틴아메리카학회 2005 라틴아메리카연구 Vol.18 No.4

In this article, I try to analyze the problems of indigenous and mestizo ethnic identities in relation to the indigenous policy of Mexican government. For the better understanding of the indigenous communities and their ethnic identity, it is necessary to conduct comparative study on both indigenous and mestizo societies. The colonial society was clearly divided into two distinct ethnic groups, indigenas and Europeans. After the independence, in spite of increasing number of mestizo, basic ethnic policy remained same as that of the colonial period. Indigenismo, developed as a result of the Mexican Revolution, introduced the concept of the Mexicanization of indigenas, which aimed to integrate indigenous people into the Mexican society by means of planned acculturation. Based on the idea of paternalistic development, indigenismo was used to develop mestizo identity among indigenous people while modernizing the indigenous communities. Even though indigenismo failed to modernize the indigenous communities, it had severe effects on the elevation of indigenous ethnic consciousness and the revitalization of indigenous organizations and their social movements. Due to inappropriate and sometimes inconsistent ethnic policy throughout history in Mexico, ethnic identities among mestizo and indigenous people become much more complicated than ever before. First, there is a noticeable discrepancy between ethnic identities defined by the social and national institution and those used in the everyday lives of the people. Second, multiplicity of ethnic identities can be found among the villagers sharing same cultural elements and physical traits. Third, thanks to the opening of the indigenous communities, many indigenous people begin to look down on their ethnic and cultural characteristics and accept the dominant ethnic ideology. Finally, mestizo and indigenous ethnic identities are understood very ambiguously in many occasions and have different meanings according to the specific social situations.

칠레의 사회변화와 개신교의 성장

주종택(Jong-Taick Joo) 한국라틴아메리카학회 2004 라틴아메리카연구 Vol.17 No.4

Chile is a country where the number of Protestant has been increasing steadily since late nineteenth century. Chilean Protestant churches have experienced sustained growth since the 1930s. A slight deceleration occurred in the 1960s, but steady growth resumed in the 1970s and 1980s. According to the 2002 national population census, 17 percent of total population belong to Protestant Church. Among the many Protestant sects, the growth of Pentecostal churches is noticeable. The success of protestantism in Chile is caused by several historical, political, legal, economic and sociocultural factors. Initially, the growth of Chile's non-Catholic community stemmed primarily from the arrival of Protestant immigrants and workers and the activities of Protestant missionaries during the nineteenth century. Still many German immigrants in the Lake District are heavily involved in Protestant religious activities together with Mapuche Indians. For Protestant churches, relationship with prominent political leaders was essential in establishing social space in the society. The most well-known case of Protestant support for right-wing dictatorship occurred in Chile after the bloody military coup of General Pinochet. Since then, many Protestant organizations and individual Protestant leaders have become increasingly active in socio-political activities. Next, less restrictive laws regulating religious organizations in Chile lower the cost of consuming religion, thus leading to an increase in religious diversity. Due to a series of legal changes concerning religion since 1925, Chile became one of the most liberal nations in the matters of religion. Protestant churches took advantage of this enactment of legislation in their religious missions. Like other countries in Latin America, the growth of Protestant churches is closely related with mounting poverty and economic pressures in the society. Evangelical growth in Chile emerged in those sectors of society undergoing rapid change caused by urbanization, industrialization and neoliberal economic development. Consequently, the growth of Protestantism in Chile has been facilitated in period when large sectors of the population have experienced heightened social exclusion.

미국의 이주정책과 멕시코의 국제노동이주의 형태

주종택(Joo Jong?Taick) 한국라틴아메리카학회 2011 라틴아메리카연구 Vol.24 No.2

This article examines the impact of the changing U.S. immigration policy on patterns of international labor migration from Mexico and on the local socioeconomic structures of the migrant-sending society. In the beginning, Mexican villagers have responded rather passively to the U.S. policy, but they currently are reacting actively to the new policy. Many households opt to send more migrants than before, and migrants who are already working in the U.S. want to stay there permanently. As more migrants avoid California in order to escape excessive patrols, instead choosing eastern and central areas for crossing the U.S.-Mexican border, the migrants are scattering far and wide in the U.S. In addition, several families absent themselves entirely from the village, upon deciding to migrate to the U.S. All told, the impact of U.S. policy on the patterns of migration from Mexico is less serious than expected because of the flexible and dynamic migration strategies of Mexican households, as confirmed by the increasing number of migrants from Mexico following the implementation of the repressive U.S. policies. Hence, recent U.S. policies fail to control migration from Mexico, but they bring about significant changes in Mexican communities. The weakening social ties between the migrants and the migrant-sending community have resulted in socioeconomic difficulties in the village. Decreasing remittances have caused severe damage to the local economy, which leads to the economic downturn and the decline of the economically active population in the village. The weakening network between migrants and their community does not contribute much for the local sociocultural activities. Some families are completely disintegrated after the severance of relations by some migrant family members. Also the migrants are less influential in community affairs than previously. In conclusion, the rapid changes in the patterns of migration have incurred irreversible negative impacts on the migrant-sending society.