古代 우리나라 跆拳의 發展過程 : 10 C 以前의 武士團을 中心으로

정찬모 서울大學校 敎育大學院 1972 국내석사

EDI를 利用한 貿易業務自動化의 效率的 推進에 관한 硏究

정찬모 서강대학교 경제정책대학원 1992 국내석사

國際法上 不法責任과 危險責任의 成立構造 : 유엔 ILC의 接近方法을 中心으로

정찬모 高麗大學校 1988 국내석사

受刑生活中인 在所者들의 職業訓練에 관한 硏究

정찬모 中央大學校 1990 국내석사

工業高等學校 學生들의 職業意識에 관한 硏究

정찬모 檀國大學校 1993 국내석사

사도바울은 성경데살로니가 3장10절에서 “누구든지 일하기 싫어하거든 먹지도 말라"고 가르치고 있다. 우리가 땀흘려 일하고 온갖 어려움을 참고 견디는 것은 단순히 먹고 살기 위해서가 아니라 자신의 목적과 가치 및 자아를 실현하기 위해서다. 이와같이 값지고 진지한 삶의 자세는 다름아닌 건전한 직업 활동을 통해서 이루어지며 이러한 직업활동은 올바른 직업의식을 통해 서 가능해 진다. 자기의 의지와 개성과 취미에 따라서 원하는 직업을 선택하고 종사할 수 있는 현대사회에서는 건전하고 올바른 직업의식을 요구하게 된다. 이 연구에서는 공업고등학교 학생들의 직업의식을 조사 분석하여 그 문제점을 파악하고 개선방안을 모색해 봄으로서 학생들의 직업의식구조를 뚜렸하게 정립시키고 올바르게 직업을 선택할수 있도록 하는데 목적이 있으며 이를 위하여 문헌연구를 통해 직업의식의 개념, 직 업성발달이론등 직업의식에 관련된 여러가지 이론을 고찰하고 이를 토대로 공고입학동기, 직업세계에 대한 이해도, 직업 가치관, 직업선택기준, 직업에 대한 포부등 5개영역에 걸쳐 문항 25개로 질문지를 작성하여 조사하고 이를 남녀별, 가정환경별, 거주지별의 집단 특성에 따른 공업고등학교 학생들의 직업의식의 차이를 비교, 분석하였다. 분석내용을 알아보면, 첫째: 공고입학과 전공 선택은 스스로 결정하는 경향을 보였고 전공에 대한 만족도와, 입학후 느낌은, 만족, 불만족이 비슷한 수준으로 조사 되었다. 이 조사에서 주목할만한 사실은 자신의 선택하고도 만족도와 기대효과에서의 불만족의 비율이 낮지 않다는 것이다. 이는 공고입학시 뚜렸한 직업의식에 의한 적성과 개성에 맞는 선택이 이루어지지 않았고 그것은 중학교에서의 진로지도가 미흡했다고 볼 수 있겠다. 둘째: 직업교육의 구체화가 더욱 절실하게 요구되는 항목은 학생들의 직업세계에 대한 이 해 정도가 대단히 낮다는 것이다. 직업세계에 대한 이해가 직업선택에 매우 중요함을 인식 하면서도 자신의 적성과 개성을 살릴 수 있는 직업이 무엇인가를 자각하지 못해 이직률이 높고 막연하게 생자해오던 직업세계에 적응하지 못하는 것이다. 셋째: 성실하면 성공할 수 있다고 답변한 학생이 많아 매우 긍정적인 전망을 보였으나 아직도 직업에는 귀천이 있다라는 견해가 지배적으로 많아 산업발전의 저해요인으로 작용하고 있어 정부의 근본적이고 실질적인 기능인 부양정책의 필요성이 절실하게 요구된다. 넷째: 직업선택시 상담대상으로 부모를 선택한 학생이 제일 많아 williams의 견해와 일치 하였으며 "가정은 최초의 학교이며 부모는 최초의 교사이다"라고 한 루터의 사상에도 부합되는 해석결과가 나왔다. 희망하는 직업이 자주 바뀌는가? 라는 질문에 "자주 바뀐다'라는 조사결과가 나와 학생들의 직업세계에 대한 이해부족과 뚜렷한 진로의식이 결여되어있음을 알 수 있었다. 다섯째: 자신의 미래전망은 비교적 희망적인 반응을 보였으나 공고졸업자의 인정정도는 대다수 학생들이 인정받지 못한다로 답변해 공업고등학교 졸업생들에게 자긍심을 심어주고 보장된 삶을 영위할 수 있게 하려면 정부에서는 근시안적인 대책보다는 근본적이고 실질적인 정책이 수립되어야 할 것이고 산업현장에서는 개성과 적성을 살려 일할 수 있는 제도가 마련되어야 하며 학교에서는 직업교육을 강화하여 올바른 직업의식을 심어주는 교육이 되어야 하겠다. 이 연구는 조사대상이 제한되어 연구결과를 일반화하여 확대 해석하는데 무리가 따르며 이 연구에 쓰인 질문지는 표준화된것이 아니고 연구자가 자작하였으므로 타당성과 신뢰도가 높다고 볼 수 없는 연구의 제한점을 갖고 있고 본 논문에서 직업의식의 형성요인과 형성과정에 대한 조사연구가 미흡했던 점이 아쉬움으로 남는다.

高麗時代 體育發達史 硏究

정찬모 東亞大學校 大學院 1990 국내박사

This study attempts to imvestigate and describe the actual state and developmental process of the traditional sports practiced over a long period of time in this nation and handed down to later generations with chief emphasis placed on that of the Koryo˘(高麗) Dynasty era. Since, regardless of the east and the west, sports activity had started with the life of man since the primeval times, man's life itself was one aspect of sports; hence, our fore-father's daily life can be interpreted as belonging to the age of sports for living in terms of its historical developmental stage. At this stage, the basic necessities of human life such as clothes, food, and shelter were inseparably interlinked with man's rudimentary movement or activities like running, jumping, and throwing. With the gradual advancement, of human knowledge, however, small arms were invented for hunting and battle, primitive forms of military arts were conceived for a self-defense purpose, and man's sports activities naturally developed with the training of one's martial arts in mind. This era coinciding with the ancient and medieval times can be called the age of sports for martial arts. In ancient times, the rivalry of various nations, though of the same ethnic origin, which divided the korean peninsula was fierce to expand their oem territories or to unify the whole peninsula under their own terms, thus sometimes engaging in struggles for supremacy with one another, and as a result, the training of military arts became an indispensable means of self-defense. Accordingly, the basic framework of various primitive martial arts activitiesperformed along with and in such religious or memorial worship sevices for folk gods or Heaven as Tongmaeng(東盟, a kind of the korean version of thanksgiving festival practiced in Koguryo˘ in October), Yo˘nggo(迎鼓, a memorial worship service practical in the ancient Puyo˘(夫餘) in the last lunar month), Mucho˘n(舞天, a similar service practiced in Mahan(馬韓) in the 10th lunar month), and Cho˘ngun(天君, a similar service performed during the days the three Hans) were formulated, further developed during the three Kingdoms' period and later channeld to the Koryo˘ Dynasty era. Though Koryo˘ brought the post three kingdoms on the peninsula under its single authority at the beginning of the 10th century, frequent border conflicts with such neighboring countries in Manchuria, China or Japan as Yo(遼, a country in Yo˘lha founded by a nomadic tribe of Mongolian origin in the tenth century), Ku˘m(金, a country founded in the region covering parts of Manchuria Mongolia, and northern China by a Tungus tribe in the early twelfth century), Won(元, a conutry founded in China by the Mongolians in the mid-13th century), Kulan(契丹, a nomadic tribe who had resided near Mongolia since the fourth century), Yo˘jin(女眞, a Tungus tribe residing in eastern Manchuria), and Woe(倭, Japan) were made and continued over a prolonged period. Such demands of the times and geographical circumstances inevitably compelled koryo˘ to strengthen its national defense posture by enhancing its national physical sports culture for martial arts. Against this background, Koroyo drafted strong muscular men with some military accomplishments to its army or enlisted the services of such talents as military officers by distributing dry and/or paddy fields for the security of their livelihood. Thus, those who were seeking advancement in career naturally exerted themselves to practice martia1 arts on their own. In July, 1109(the fourth year of King Yejong's(睿宗) reign), as the studies of both literary and martial arts were considered the basis of national enlightenment, a department of martial art called Kangyeje(講藝齋) was set up in Kukjagam(國子監, a government institute which was engaged in the teaching of Confucianism). The opening of such a new department contributed greatly to the improvement of sports and physical education in general in that it systematically provided opportunities to elevate the general level of knowledge for the military officers and chances to train martial arts for the civilian officials as well, thereby ultimately leading to the development of sports for martial arts and to the Formulation of their demonstration systems. The events of sports for martial arts in the Koryo era included Kungsa(弓射, archery), Subakhu˘i(手搏戱, the korean martial art of empty-handed self-defen-se, the predecessor of Taekwondo), Kyo˘kguhu˘i(擊毬戱, a game similar to polo), Suryo˘p(狩獵, hunting), Kakjo˘hui(角抵戱, a Korean-style wrestling), and Chukguk(蹴鞠, the predecessor of soccer), So˘kjo˘nhui(石戰戱, a stone fighting), and the following are a brief sketch of each type. Kungsa(archery) is a martial art, of the longest standing even practiced in the prehistoric age and the boas or arrows famous for their excellent quality at that time were classlfied into Tangung(檀弓, the bow made of birch), Maekgung (the quality bow produced in Sosumaek(小水貊), Kogury˘o). Kosi(고시, the arrow made of bush clover), and so˘kchok(石鏃, the arrowhead made of stone). The kinds of arrowheads included Kolchok(骨族, the arrowhead made of animal bone) in addition to Sokchok. Since the power of Tangung was equivalent to that of Noh(弩, the bow capable of discharching several arrows at one time), its arrow could travel as far as 400 steps. Sokchok used with Hosi was stronger and tougher than that made of iron and for that reason, its excellent quality was even documented in Chinese history books. The bows in those days were mainaly made of birch, the arrows of bush clover, and the arrowheads of Cho˘ngso˘k(靑石, a kind of schist rock colored blue) which was abundantly produced in Mt. Changbaek(長白山), the water source of the Tumen River in Hamkyong-bukdo and the Sungari River in Manchuria. In addition, the arrows in those days were also made of bamboo since good quality bamboos were abundantly produced in the southern part of the Korean peninsula. At the beginning of Koryo˘. Tangung and Hosi were mainly uses as a large quantity of bows and arrows were offered as a tribute by Yogin. After the accession of King Yejong to the throne, however, the relationship with the Yojin tribe turned sour and Kyo˘nggung(梗弓, the bow made of elm) was frequently used instead, together with bamboo arrows in combination with stone, copper, or iron arrowheads. The bows in those days could be classified into Dangung(檀弓), Gaokgung(角弓), Kyo˘nggung, and Segung(細弓) while the arrow into Chukjo˘n(竹箭), Sejo˘n(細箭), Yuyo˘pjo˘n(柳葉箭), Taewujo˘n(大羽箭), and Pyo˘njo˘n(片箭). The Silla(新羅), Kingdom developed Noh such as Chanoh(車弩, avehicle type) and Pono(砲弩, a mortar type) and operted a special archery unit called Nohdang(弩幢) in its military. The know-how of making Noh was passed on to Koryo and such functionally excellent Noh as Sujilgugungnoh(繡質九弓弩), Palwunoh(八牛弩), and Cho˘ngyunnoh(千均弩) were further developed and produced. In addition, archery units called Cho˘ngnoh(精弩) and Kangnoh(剛弩) were set up and operated under the umbrella of the Special Troop(別武班). Archery has been a requisite form of martial arts for the Korean people since the tribal period. In Koguryo, archery was taught at such edcational institutes as Taihak(太學) and Kyo˘ngdang(경당) and in Silla, skills in archery were prerequisite to recruiting its talents; hence, development of archery followed as natural consequence. Some of famous archers during the There Kinghoms era included King Tongmyo˘ngsong(東明聖王, the founder of Kogury˘o) in Koguryo˘, King koee(古爾王), Tongso˘ng(東城王), and Piryu(比流王) in Paekje(百濟), and Kwanchang(官昌), one of the Hwarang(花郞, the youth in the Silla Kingdom who excelled in beauty, bravery, and military arts) in Silla. In Koryo, a separate military recuiting agency called Songunbyo˘lgam(選軍別監) was set up where candidates for the military service were tested on their skills in archery and kings ordered virtually all of their subjects ranging from civilian and military officials to ordinary farmers to practice shooting with bows and arrows on a regular basis and personally spot-checked its execution. In addition, various martial arts including archery were offered as regular course work in Kangyeje of Kukjagam and special archery units called Kyo˘nggung and Sagung(射弓) were established. As a result, many expert archers were produced, let alone the further development of archery skill itself. Representative archers in those days included such king of Koryo˘ as Yejong and Uijong and such famous generals of koryo˘ as Ko Yo˘l(高烈) Kim Kyong-yong, CHOI Jo˘ng(崔珽) So˘ Kong(徐恭) KI Tak-so˘ng(寄卓誠) KIM Yun-hwu(金允侯) YI Cha-so˘ng(李子晟). Subakhui found its origin in Checho˘ndaehoe(帝王大會, a state-held function of religious worship for Heaven) practiced in ancjent times and was trained by So˘nbae(先輩), a military youth corps of Koguryo, starting the mid-first century. Some historical records of Subakhu˘i were found in the mural paintings of old tombs and mounds of the Koguryo era such as Muyong tomb(舞踊塚), Anak No.3tomb(安岳 3號墳), and Tongsu tomb(冬壽墓). It is aassumed that a great vogue in Subakhu˘i from the beginning of the 4th century until the mid-5th century could be attributed to the offering of martial arts programs in Taihak and Kyo˘ngdang. Subakhui was later passed on to Silla that adopted it as a regular martial arts educational program for the Hwarang(花郞) and where its hand skills and foot skills were differentiated for the first time. The empty-handed self-defense martial art was ultimately succeeded by Koryo˘ where it made an epochal advancement both quantitatively and quantitatively in the true sense of the term. From the qualitative viewpoint, the power and skill of hand-smashing reached such a point as to be able to kill human life instantly or seriously injure the opponent. Accrdingly, the self-defense martial art became a required test item in recruiting the nation's military talents, thus consolidating its position as an indispensable martial art for military officers as well as ordinary men such that a five-contestant team competition called Obyo˘ng subakhu˘i(五兵手搏戱) was newly created and popularly held in the military. From the quantitative point of view, those excelling at Subakhui could start their career as a government official and if ordinary soldiers were good at it, they had the privilege of promotion to the rank of an officer. Thus, if anyone wanted to get ahead in the military, he could not afford not to practice the art on his own. King U˘ijong(毅宗) around there ordered Obyo˘ng subakhui to be held in his presence by both civilian and military officials on his way to Bohyo˘nwon(普賢院). From such a historical record, it can be inferred that even civilian officials had to learn the method of Subakhui. Since they were strongly influenced by the King's campaign for the promotion of the ethos of Chivalry Spirits(仙風) and the opening of Kangyeje under the umbrella of Kukjagam institutionally provided them with an opportunity to train the martial arts. Riding on such a current of the times, skill in Subakhui even spread to the lowest stratum of society and it became apparent that the mastering of the self-defense martial arts was no longer considered a military occupational specialty in that at one time. In other words, it became one of the favorite national pastimes or a popular national sports event directly participated in by all walks of life. YI U˘i-min(李義旼) and TU Kyo˘ng-sung(杜景升) were among those persons who succeeded in life as military officers by capitalizing on their proficiency in Subakhui and were able to have the affairs of state at their beck and call. Pyo˘n An-yo˘l(邊安烈) contended in Subakhu˘i with both Lim Kyo˘n-mi(林堅味) and Yo˘m Hu˘ng-bang(廉興邦) and after winning the contest, he was finally promoted from the rank of Miljikbusa(密直副使) to that of Chimiljiksasa(知密直司事), CHOI Chung-ho˘n(崔忠獻) a famous general of Koryo, ordered soldiers under his command to have a against one another. The military rank of Kyowi(校尉) or Taejo˘ng(隊正) was conferred on the winner as a prize by him, implying that a formal system of operating, scoring, and demonstrating Subakhui competition was firmly established in the Koryo˘ era. The methods of competition in Koryo˘ dynasty were largely divided into individual competition and team contests where the winner or the winning team was determined based on the degree of skill employed in the game or the capabillity of one's defense against the offensive action of the opponent. Around the last years of the Koryo˘ Dynasty, the relative importance of Subakhu˘i as martial arts showed signs of waning with the introduction of new weaponary like gunpowder and firearms. As a result, the self-defense martial arts developed into a folk sports game; thus, they were no longer considered military arts. On July 15, for example, Subakhu˘i contests were annually held in the village of CHakji(鵲旨), Unjinhyo˘n(恩津縣), Chungcho˘ng-do and in Kaeso˘ng, of which the one held in Kaeso˘ng was renowned as Songdosubak(松都手拍) as it was typical of a folk sports game. Kyo˘kgu(擊毬) had its origin in persian polo which was introduced into Korea via China. More specifically, large-scale playgrounds for Kyokgu originally imported from the Tang of Ching were built during the Three Kingdoms era, meaning that the game must have already been popularized in those days. Since the original purpose of Kyokgu was to break in horses, Koryo˘ which had been plaguad by frequent border skirmishes with some tribes of Manchurian origin encouraged the game out of necessity on a national level. Consequently, Kyo˘kgu which was conducive to the training of cavalry units and Horse-riding Archery Troops(神騎軍) naturally became fashionable and large-scale training fields were also constructed. The length of one section of rectangular Kyo˘kgu. field enclosed by a surrounding wall of several ri(one ri equals to four km) extends as long as some 400 steps. The Kyokgu field of the Koryo˘ era had a mulit-purpose use in that it played the role of a sports complex in modern terms: first, it was used as a training field for cavaliers and shooting on horseback as well as for archery and lancing on horseback: second, it was a parade ground for military reviewing: third, national buddist functions such as Yo˘ndunghoe(燃燈會), Palgwanhoe(八關會) and Paekjwahoe(百座會) were annually held there. Kings U˘ijong and Chungyo˘l(忠烈王) are said to have personally enjoyed Kyo˘kgu and other kings of successive generations also encouraged the game by granting logyl gifts to such military units or warriors as Singigun(神騎軍), Khorchi(忽赤), U˘ngbang(鷹坊) and soldier. During the reign of King Yejong, the game rapidly found its way into the general populace and at last women's Kyokgu came into vogue. The game itself, however, turned extravaganza as luxury-loving well-to-dos began to decorate saddles and horses with jewels and gold-plated ornaments. Among the typically intemperate high-ranking officials of those days were Choi Yi(崔怡) who constructed his own Kyokgu field by forcibly taking possession of hundreds of farm houses and Choi Hang(崔沆) who fel1 into lavish habits of decking the bridle of a horse) with sumptuous silk flowers and changni(障泥, abdo-men cover of a horse with golden ornaments. As Kyo˘kgu failed to serve its original purpose of training martial arts. King Yejong suspended the play of wemen's Kyo˘kgu in the face of such excesses of luxury, and finally in the first year of King Chungyo˘l and in the 23rd year of King Kongmin's(恭愍王) reign, the game was completely prohibited. Irrespective of such a legal sanction, however, the game was still popular with kings and state ministers. Although during the late stage of Koryo, the function of Kyo˘kgu as a useful means of training martial arts gradually gave way to the use of firearms due to the advancement of new weapons, it still remained an indispensable Factor on festive holidays like DanO(端午, the May Festival on the fifth day of the fifth luner month), thus bringing into existence a new form of the game called Chisangkyo˘kgu(地上擊毬) which quickly developed into a genuine folk play for the nation's pastime and amusement. Kyokgu was of the two kinds: Chimakyo˘kgu(騎馬擊毬) was a game played between two teams of players on horseback, who tried to get points by hitting a ball with long-handled wooden stick whereas into a hold bored in the ground or on the stair like a bowl. In Chimakyo˘kgu, if one hit the ball into the goal slot, it earned 15 points, but if the ball passed by the goal slot, it scored 10 points. In Chisangkyo˘kgu, if one got a goal at one stroke of the stick, it earned 2 points, while it got a hoal at two or three strokes, it scoredl point. In case one got a goal at one stroke, it lost a chance or a right to try to hit another ball. In other words, the game should be started again in that case. If the ball hit another ball at the first try, however, the one still had the right to play on but if the ball bumped into another ball at the second try, the one lost the right to play the game. Suryo˘p(hunting) began in the prehistoric age to make up for shortages of foods during the period when people were leading a lift of gathering various edibles from nature, but it gradually developed into one essential element of martial arts to improve the function of archery and breaking in horses at the same time. The anecdote told of Jumong(朱蒙) the founder of the Koguryo˘ Kingdom, that he and seven other princes of King Kumwa(金蛙王) caught lots of animals with an inordinately small number of arrows on a hunting trip set the finest example of the kind in the hunting history of ancient times and it clearly showed his leadership potential as the first king of Koguryo˘. In Koguryo˘, nationwide hunting contests were annually held two times in March and October on a grand scale. While King Chungcho˘n(中川王) went on a hunting, a general of Wie(魏) invaded but he was instantly crushed by the king's 5,000 elite cavalrymen. In the 22nd year of the reign of King Onjo(溫祚王, the founder of the Paekche Kingdom, the king leading a troop of 5,000 cavalrymen was hunting in the west of Puhyo˘n(釜峴) where he came across a troop of Malgal(靺鞨, a Tungus tribe residing in Siberia and northeastern Manchuria). After a fierce encounter battle, he took many of them prisoner whom he later distributed among his underlings. Bangu˘ng(放鷹, hunting with the hawk) started in Silla(新羅) and Karakguk(駕洛國) around the mid-first century. King Asin(阿莘王) of Paekche(百濟) and King Chinpyo˘ng(眞平王) of Sil la especially encouraged falconry. Though falconry had continued since the first king, king Taejo(太祖) of Koryo˘, it was during the reign of Chungyo˘l that it really came into vogue. In the first year of king Chungyol's accession to the throne, he made a game preserve for falconry called Ungbang ordered Tuluge(禿魯花) to put on a night watch, and set up Ungbangdogam(放鷹都監, a state agency which was in charge of managing hunting grounds for hawking) to manage the operation of game preserves for hawking across the nation. The establishment of ungbang however, produced lots of unexpected abuses and ill effects. Since Ungbang was virtually taxfree game fields granted as a royal gift, tax incomes from various levels of local government such as Ju(州) Kun(郡), and Hyon(縣) dwindled. Under the mask of bringing up and taming hawks, a large number of chickens and dogs were extorted from reluctant civilians. Against the background, king Chungmok(忠穆王) abolished Ungbangdoogam. Most famous places or regions at that time producing hawks were Haeju(海州) and the Baekryo˘ng(白翎) Islands. Since the hawktraining method of koryo were inimitable, the so-called koryo˘'s hawks enjoyed a reputation of being unique in their own way and were well-known as far as to china proper. One of the representative Koryo˘'s hawks was the Haedong chong Boramae(甫羅鷹), (the hawk that is trained for falconry before it is a year old) produced, The birds of prey used for hunting were mainly the falcon and the eagle and were classified into sixteen classes ranging from Kyo˘lui(決義) and Kujinui(句陳義) that specialized in catching the sparrow or the quail to Kamaksuli(加漠戌伊) and Yukdo˘kwi(六德威) that were supposed to catch the deer or the tiger. Kakjo˘hu˘i(角抵戱) whose origin dates back to the days of Puyo˘(夫餘), (an ancient nation founded in northern Manchuria) and Koguryo was handed down to later genertions. The murals excavated from Kakjo tomb(角抵塚) found in Hwando(丸都) the old capital of Koguryo˘, provide us with vivid historical descriptions of the game where two muscular men or Heruleses are depicted as kakjoui with each other while a referee is standing in the middle. Since Kakjo˘hui the predecessor of Ssiru˘m, was an exercise to cultivate one's physical fitness, it was practiced by youths as one of the basic martial arts in Koryo˘ but at the beginning and middle of the Koryo˘ era, it was not adopted as one of the test items in recruiting military officers; hence, no great strides in the game were made during that period. With the advent of King Chunghye(忠惠王) around the end of the Koryo˘ Dynasty, progress in the Kakjihui(Ssireum) accelerated and it reached the high level of Korean Ssirum at the beginning of Chosun. King Chunghye entrusted the affairs of state to Pae Jo˘n (裵佺) and Ju ju(朱柱) in order to play Ssirum with chamberlain in Royale palace or make a tour of watching Ssirum accompanied by his warriors. The king himself along with retainer Ko Ryong-bo(高麗普) presented prizes to the winners of the game at street. The show of such a strong personal interest in the game on the part of the king greatly helped promote the spread of Ssiru˘m among the general public. The fact that Kakjo˘hui was played in the royal presence implies that the system of operating the game was firmly established at that time. The reactivation of Ssiru˘m around the end of Koryo˘ which had shown signs of stagnation during the previous years could be attributable to its inherent advantages of simplicity, the demand of the times, and social circumstances: skill in Ssiru˘m could be acquired in a relatively short period without too large investments in any special facilities and various martial arts besides Kakjohu˘i were transformed into folk sports games due to the consolidation of military systems and the introduction of new firearms. The heated enthusiasm for kakjohui during the last years of Koryo˘ passed on without let-up to the Chosun era as the founding king of Chosun placed special emphasis on martia1 arts. Especially during the reign of king Sejong, Ssiru˘m made an epochal progress qualitaively and quantitatively since the king showed strong personal interest in various matial arts like Subakhui and Kyo˘kgu, let alone Ssirum itself. Perhaps no king in the past history of the nation had a deeper understanding of martial arts than king Sejong(世宗大王). In March, the 13th year of King Sejong's rule, the king made an honored visit to Mohwagwan(慕華館), ordered five muscular men including An Sa-u˘i(安思義) to play Ssiru˘m and personally awarded prizers. When Sang Chong(尙總) a Buddhist priest, was faced with death penalty by hanging because he accidentally killed his opponent in a Ssiru˘m match, the king granted the priest a commutation from a death sentence to a more lenient punishment; thus, the priest was ordered to bear the funeral expenses for the dead and consequently his life was saved. The more lenient punishment by king Sejong of those inflicting a bodily injury in Ssiru˘m matches gave an impetus for Kakjohui to make more rapid strides as a genuine folk game as it can be inferred from the fact that even Buddhist monks played it. Large-scale annual Ssirum contests were nationally held especially on DanO(端午), in addition to July 15 and August 15. in Ssirum matches, Satpa(샅바, a cloth band worn around one tigh) had been already used in the Koryo˘ era. Ssiru˘m is essenyially a contest of physical fitness where two opponents start the match on their bended tigh with the right hand of each opponent taking hold of the opponent's waist while the left hand of one opponent firmly grasping the right tigh of the other opponent. When both stand up simultaneously, the two contestant try to throw each other down to the ground or force some body parts of the opponent to touch the ground first to win the game. Since today's Ssirum is not too different from the one practuiced in Koryo and it was formally systematized for the first time during the Koryo˘ era, Ssirum is also known as Koryo˘gi(高麗技, a Koryo martial art). Chukguk (蹴鞠, a game similar to the soccer of today) was first introduced into this nation from the Han Dynasty of China and was played simultaneously by the three countries on this peninsula during the days of the Three Kingdoms (三國, Koguryo˘, Paekche, and Silla). The ball used for the game was made of a leather bag stuffed with downy hair, fur, or husks of grain but in Koryo˘, it was made of the bladder of the cow filled up with air. The soccer game of Koryo˘ was not too different from the one played nowadays but it was practiced by two to eight persons standing right opposite one another who kicked or passed the ball without dropping it to the ground. It was a customary practice to play Chukguk on a Kyo˘kgu field in those days. At both ends of the playing field were erected two long posts covered with nets and the winning team of the game was determined by scoring more goals with in a predsignated time period, implying that players each team kicked the bal1 into the goal 1ine of the opposing team. Although in ancient times, all players of each tram tried to prevent the ball from getting into their own team's goal line since no goal post as such was used at that time, but during the Middle Age, a goal pest similar tn the one used today was erected for the first time. Sokjo˘nhui(a Stone-fighting game) made its start at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms era in this country. More specifically, in Silla it started during the reign of king Yurinisagu˘m(琉璃尼師今), and in Koguryo˘, during the reign of king Taejo(太祖). Under king Munmu's(文武王) rule in Silla, a catapult unit called Soktudang was activated. In Koryo˘, So˘kcho˘n was considered an important part of physical culture for martial arts and a catapult unit called So˘ktuhan(石投班) was set up as part of the regular military organizations. The Stone-fighting game enjoyed its heyhay during the rule of king Wu(禑王) and around the end of Koryo, and it developed into a folk sports game. National So˘kjo˘nhu˘i contests were annually held around the beginning of the year, on DanO (the 5th day of the 5th lunar month), on April 8, and on the 15th day of January by the lunar calendar. The game was played by pitting one village against another or by splitting one region into two sides. Participants in the game threw stones and beat with clubs while waving the flag of their own and beating drums. The name of the game was to take the flag of the opposing team away from them or to completely drive back the enemy. In Chosun, a stone-fighting unit called Cho˘kso˘kgun(擲石軍) was activated during the reign of the founding king, Taejo, and during the king Sejong's rule, it was reshuffled and reinforced to enhance its function of impartial arts.

The application of EC competition law to public enterprises : article 90 of the treaty of Rome

정찬모 University of Oxford 1995 해외박사

본고는 유럽에서 지금 벌어지고 있는 경제자유화 조치의 법적 근거인 유럽공 동체조약 제 90조에 관한 연구이다. 1980년 6월 유럽공동체회원국과 공기업간의 재무관계의 투명성에 관한 집행 위원회 지침 80/723을 시발호 하여 제90조의 적용은 날로 여러사람의 이목을 끌고 있다. 단지 그 조항의 적용빈도가 증가하였을 뿐만아니라 그 규정의 잠 재적 영향권도 괄목하게 확대되었다. 예컨대 유럽전기통신시장 개방을 위한 1988년 전기통신 단말기기 지침(Directive 88/301 on competition in the mar kets for telecommunications terminal equipment)과 1990년 전기통신 써비스 지침(Directive 90/388 on competition in markets for telecommunications s ervices)을 위한 법적근거로서 제90조 3항이 이용되었다. 몇몇 회원국이 이들 지침의 조약적합성을 다투었으나 유럽사법법원은 이 사건과 후속하는 사건에 서 그 정당성을 인정하였다. 이제 제90조를 둘러싼 베일의 일부는 벗겨졌지만 아직 많은 질문이 대답을 기다리고 있다. 본 논문의 제1부는 유럽공동체조약 제90조의 의미와 그 역할을 논함으로서 국가의 경제개입 논리와 자유시장경제 이념의 충돌이 유럽공동체법상 어떻게 조정되고 상호보완이 이루어지는가 살펴본다. 특히 정부규제완화와 자율화된 부문에서의 공정경쟁 유지를 위한 수단으로서 제90조의 가능성과 한계를 검토 한다. 본 논문은 제90조의 단순한 해석론을 뛰어넘어 그 정치경제적 기반을 규명하고 현금의 해석이 갖는 맹점을 극복하기위한 입법론을 제시한다. 우선 정부규제와 자유경쟁은 끊임없는 상호작용 관계에 있음을 보이고 유럽공동체 법원이 경쟁과 국가 개입의 성질에 관하여 어떠한 태도를 취하는가를 분석하 여 유럽공동체 경쟁법은 유효경쟁이론에 기초하고 있음을 밝힌다. 나아가 본고는 제90조와 관련된 판례법에 일관성이 결여되어 있음을 밝히고, 제90조 관련 판례법과 제3조(g)와 5조 관련 판례법이 일견 서로 모순된 결과 를 초래함에 주목한다. 따라서 공동체법의 일관성 회복을 위한 제안으로,본고 는 제90조가 회원국의 경제규제권에 대하여 자유경쟁원리의 범위를 확정하는 일반원칙으로서 발전되어야 한다고 제언하며,이를'일반법칙으로서의 제90조(A rticle 90 as lex generalis)'라 명한다.