『투사 삼손』에 나타난 묵시적 비전과 정치성

송홍한 한국고전중세르네상스영문학회 2003 중세근세영문학 Vol.13 No.2

밀턴의 『교육론』 : 실용주의적 휴머니즘 A Practical Humanism

송홍한 동아대학교 교육대학원 2001 동아교육논총 Vol.27 No.-

Milton’s Of Education (1644) was published in the same period as his Areopagitioa and divorce tracts were issued. This implies the pamphlet is an attempt to improve personal liberty, but the tract does show a Spartan educational system rather than a democratic won. This apparent contradiction can be explained by the historical context surrounding its publication. Since the tract was written in a revolutionary period, it goes beyond the humanistic educational system for a peaceful period. The ideal educational system put forth by the tract, therefore, is "that which fits a man to perform justly, skilfully and magnanimously all the offices both private and publicke of peace and war." Milton’s educational idea is often compared with that of John Comenius, an educational revolutionary in Milton’s age. Comenius and his supporters exclude literature from their curriculum, while Milton includes it in his curriculum. Thus, as far as his idea of education is concerned, Milton shows a kind of practical humanism.

『영국 국민을 위한 변호』에 나타난 밀턴의 국민주권론

송홍한 동아대학교 인문과학대학 영어영문학과 2001 동아영어영문학 Vol.17 No.-

Milton's Pro Populo Anglicano Defensio (1651), usually called Defensio Prima, is a latin tract against Defensio Regia (1949) which was supposedly written by Salmasius. In his tract, Salmasius encourages the European kings to campaign against the English Repulic and help restore CharlesⅡ's kingship in England. Milton was selected by the Council of State to argue against Salmasius's tract. In his tract, Milton attacks Salmasiu's "Defense of the King" with "Defense of the English People." In other words, he tries to advocate the right of the people against the kingship. He attacks Salmasius's argument in every detail, matching corresponding prefaces and chapters. Though Milton more often than not vituperates his opponent, his language soars as high as his enhanced idea of liberty for the people. His relentless use of insulting language can be understood and explained away when we take into account the historical context of controversial tracts popular in those days. He swings round and round his pen as if he uses a big sword to fight the royalist enemy. Despite his sublime pursuit of liberty, Milton's argument tends to be practical. When Milton's tract was written, England and the United Provinces of the netherlands were closely related with each other politically as well as religiously. To keep a favorable relation with the netherlands, Milton approaches monarchy as an option under a prerequisite condition that "the soul ruler is the best of men." But he does not forget to add "otherwise monarchy sinks most rapidly into the worst tyranny." With Milton, it is both unacceptable and unreasonable to absolutize the kingship, since "it is we rather who created the king." Milton's theory of the right of the people is also related with his definition of the people. His people is distinguished from the populace which excludes both the nobility and the middle class. By the people he means neither "the dregs of the populace" nor the inherited nobility but the rational citizens who are willing to seek for their inborn liberty and right. Thus, the people's execution of the king to restore their inborn right is "a deed so excellent and so worthy of even the most heroic days of old." While justifying the English people's execution of the tyrant, Milton's Defensio represents a showcase of his sublime idea of the people's right and his prose-epic rhetoric.

초기 미국문학에 끼친 밀턴의 영향

송홍한 한국고전중세르네상스영문학회 2002 중세근세영문학 Vol.12 No.2

Milton had a great influence upon American literature, especially from the colonial period through the early Republican period, He is sometimes called "the American Milton." His epithet "American" sounds persuasive when we take it into account that his republican ideas had greatly contributed to the development of the American Republic, either directly or indirectly. His influence upon American literature worked in various respects, political, religious, literary and so on. All these influences may well be literary, since all these derive from his literature. In other words, his literary influence is not limited to a literary field only but extended to other fields, political, religious, cultural, educational and so on. This essay is focused upon Milton's influence upon the early American literature, though its results may not be literary. Milton's influence upon American literature goes back to the early colonial period of America. Even before his great poems were published, Americans had already showed interest in his prose works. After the publication of his epics, they became more and more interested in his literature, especially Paradise Lost. Early American writers found their poetic models in Milton's poetry, and found their political ideas in his prose works. During the Revolution his influence was directed toward the political world. Adopting Milton's language and imagery in their political writings became popular just like a fashion. Milton was among representative political leaders for Americans who were struggling for the Revolution. Milton the poet, however, had greater influence upon the emotional respect of the Revolution. Hugh Henry Brackenridge, John Trumbull, Joel Barlow, Timothy Dwight, and Philip Freneau are major representative poets influenced by Milton's literature. These poets are sketched in terms of their dependency upon Milton. Though we may have various arguments about "what makes American literature," the American Milton worked as one influence, as John T. Shawcross admits.

『영국 국민을 위한 변호』에 나타난 밀턴의 국민주권론

송홍한 동아영어영문학회 2001 동아영어영문학 Vol.17 No.-

밀턴의 초기시 : 예언적 가락을 향하여 Toward the "Prophetic Strain"

송홍한 한국영어영문학회 2000 영어 영문학 Vol.46 No.1

밀턴의 시에 나타난 그의 여성관

송홍한 한국밀턴학회 1996 중세근세영문학 Vol.6 No.-

While most of the 18th-century female readers considered Milton as a feminist rather than a misogynist, most modern female readers tend to regard him as a patriarchal poet, perhaps still under Dr. Johnson's biased attack against Milton as a misogynist. This paper examines Milton's idea of woman, focusing on Eve's relation to Adam in Paradise Lost but also referring to his divorce tracts and Samson Agonistes. In his divorce tracts, Milton puts great emphasis upon the importance of spiritual compatibility in marriage. His conception of spiritual compatibility also pervades his poetry, with its ideal case in Paradise Lost and its negative case in Samson Agonistes. In Paradise Lost, Adam asks for an equal partner to God, and He makes Eve out of Adam's rib to be his "helpmeet." In Satan's first view, Adam and Eve are equally distinguished from all other animals, and they are "Lords of all" created in the image of God, though they are, as the narrator points out, two different sexes. Adam is situated in a dilemma, both looking up to her beauty and looking down upon her inward inferiority. In the separation scene, Eve uses her free right to choose, though her choice proves wrong. Milton does not keep her inside for her household job; she enjoys the same labor as Adam, even initiating a new strategy for effective work. In Eden, Eve also enjoys mutual love with Adam, spiritually as well as physically, showing their harmonious relationship. Both Adam's diatribes to Eve after their Fall and the betrayed Samson's to Dalila do not exhibit the poet's misogyny but rather their frustrated spiritual agony. Recovering their mutual love, Adam and Eve restore their love of God, while Samson achieves his spiritual victory only by divorcing Dalila. In their exile from Eden, Adam and Eve, "hand in hand," "took thir solitary way,' showing both their mutual companionship and individual responsibility. In Milton's view, all men, male or female, are equal before God, because they are both created in the image of God. At the same time, however, they are unequal because of their different sexes. Their relationship is based upon equality in difference. Though Milton seems to accept the Biblical tradition of patriarchy, his poetic imagination endorsed by his concept of freedom gives equal dignity and freedom to man and woman. In his poetry, Milton enables his readers to imagine the harmonious world of Edenic life in which Adam and Eve enjoyed their mutual help, solace, and love on the basis of caritas or charity. As long as his poetry is concerned, therefore, Milton was the first feminist who tried to liberate woman from the corrupted patriarchal tradition in fallen history.

『코머스』에 나타난 밀턴의 정치시학

송홍한 한국밀턴학회 1999 중세근세영문학 Vol.9 No.2

Comus was published in 1637, three years after its performance as masque. As a literary work independent of performance, it has provoked various responses and controversies from the critics. The initial title of the masque was A Maske Presented at Ludlow Castle, 1634, though it has been generally passed by the name of Comus. Taking into account the poet's intentions implied in its initial name, we cannot deny that the masque was intended to be read as masque rather than any other genre. In its preferences for long dialogues and songs rather than the gorgeous clothes and attractive stage show employed by the traditional masque, however, Comus as masque has its unique generic characteristics, exhibiting "the civilizing power of poetry and music." Thematically, Comus also deviates from the traditional masque, since the theme of chastity is inappropriate to the traditional court masque, which more often than not provides entertainment and flattery for the court. Its Puritan theme reveals the religious and political conflicts between royalists and puritans. Being never intended by Milton to be a court masque, Comus attacks the court culture by emphasizing inward merit rather than earthly greatness. So, Milton's Lady attacks the court against its lack of "courtesie," while she praises the country sheds for their simple courtesy. Moreover, it argues for the "greater economic equality," which can be achieved by the power of chastity. In conclusion, Milton's revolutionary political ideas led him to revise his poetics of the masque, producing a union of art and politics.

<준비되고 쉬운 길>: 자유공화국을 위한 밀턴의 마지막 제안과 절규

송홍한 한국고전중세르네상스영문학회 2010 중세근세영문학 Vol.20 No.2

Though Milton’s Civil Power and Hirelings (1659) can be understood in the line of his antiprelatical pamphlets written in the 1640, The Readie and Easie Way (1660) focuses on the survival of republicanism and his jeremiad for the English people. Its very topic sounds ironical, though, because it was written right before the restoration of Charles 2. The main purpose of the pamphlet is to suggest a way to establish a free commonwealth and give his final warning against the restoration of monarchy. On the one hand, he provides a balance between grand council and small regional councils, though he seems not to believes its possibility. On the other hand, he wanted to leave his final Jeremiad for the English people. The political system of a free commonwealth proposed by Milton anticipated a modern democratic regime whose power is balanced between federal and local governments. In a modern democratic regime, power is not concentrated on its central government but spread out to its local governments all over the nation. The degree of power balance between cental and local governments indicates how much democratized a nation is. In this sense, Milton’s proposal for a free commonwealth went far ahead of his time. But he did not believe that it could be really fulfilled in contemporary England, but he only wanted to inform the English people that there was once a ready and easy way to establish a free commonwealth. Therefore, his proposal of a federalist free commonwealth is closely related to his jeremiad for the English people who are losing the last chance to establish a free commonwealth. While Milton wrote this tract out of a prophet poet’s duty for his nation, his Jeremiad for the free commonwealth in jeopardy as well as his last proposal of the “readie and easie way” was only a blind poet’s meaningless outcry to the English people.

『우상파괴자』: 정치적 우상화에 대한 밀턴의 비판

송홍한 한국고전중세르네상스영문학회 2013 중세근세영문학 Vol.23 No.2

Eikonoklastes does not merely deal with Milton’s justification of the regicide of the dead king Charles I but the political idolization of any monarch, which leads to a potential threat to the freedom of the people. In this prose, Milton responds to and criticizes Charles’political self-idolization depicted in Eikon Basilike, while he repeats and extends his own theory of popular sovereignty suggested in The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates. In both Eikonoklastes and The Tenure, Milton argues for the people’s rights and freedom, and emphasizes the social contract for the kingship between the king and his people. Milton fears and warns that Charles’ political idolization, though attempted posthumously after the regicide, may lead to a revival of tyrannical monarchy. In Milton’s view, Eikon is a kind of artistic fiction beatifying the dead king’s tyrannical life, providing a forged image of the dead king as a martyr or the second Christ. Though Milton is deeply disappointed at the “inconstant, irrational, and image-doting rabble,” he attempts to persuade them to turn back by reminding them of the dead king’s tyranny and his last political self- idolization. For this purpose, he attempts to destroy Charles’ political idolization cunningly fabricated in Eikon, by pointing out related historical facts one by one. Though Cromwell’s republican government fails by the Restoration, Milton’s republican ideal revives along with the Glorious Revolution in 1688, and still remains in the heart of the English people.