이집트 민족주의의 형성과 발전 및 그 안에서 외세와 이슬람의 역할에 대한 연구 : 프랑스의 이집트 침입부터 이집트의 독립까지

송경근 ( Kyung Keun Song ) 한국외국어대학교 중동연구소 2010 중동연구 Vol.29 No.2

Napoleon and French Army invaded Egypt in 1798. Their occupation of Egypt lasted three years, and they were forced to be evacuated in 1801 by the Anglo-Othman forces. However, the departure of French Army not only simply end short period of intrusion in Egyptian history, during which an isolated province was exposed to European culture, but also signalled another type of European influences. On the contrary, French influence was able to establish itself further, and the first ruler of modern Egypt Muhammad Ali continued the work which Napoleon had begun. Ismail, the grandson of Muhammad Ali, continued Muhammad Ali`s work. The seed of nationalism was regarded from reformation of Khedive Ismail and to be reinforced during the intervention of Western European superpowers for the Egyptian financial bankruptcy. Islam played the role of basic power to unify and organize the Egyptian nationalists. The Egyptian nationalism was temporally pressed down the British rule. But it was fired again by Mustafa Kamil. His Nationlism was popular was supported by general public. However it was weakened after his death. On the contrary, Ahmad `Ali Lutfi guided the moderate and compromising nationalism which was rooted by the bourgeoisie. After the 1st world war they became main stram in Egyptian politics. They succeeded to obtain the independence of Egypt and became ruling power after the revolution of 1919. In this period, although Islam was not most important factor to determine all activities, anyone can`t deny it gave basic guideline to keep Egyptian nationalism. Foreign power played to fire the nationalism in Egypt. However Islam offered the basic power to continue the nationalism.

중세 유럽의 십자군 전쟁은 원정인가 침략인가?

송경근 ( Kyung Keun Song ) 부산외국어대학교 지중해연구소 2007 지중해지역연구 Vol.9 No.1

The crusading war was a series of campaign motivated by the desire to bring the holy places of Christendom and to protect it as European viewpoint. Many European historians thought the crusading war lasted from 1095, when Pope Urban II made his famous call to arms, until the fall of Acre in 1291. The crusading war formed two important parts, Europe and Islamic world. In Europe, the Crusades were part of the evolution of Medieval Western Europe. In Muslim East, the Crusades have left their impact on the Islamic consciousness to the present day. The historiography of the crusades, as seen from an European viewpoint, can be divided into three periods, of which the first and longest, went from 1095 to the end of the sixteenth century; the second covered the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and the third begin in the early nineteenth century and has lasted to the present. The first period considered the crusading war a response to Muslim threats on Christian holy places and people in the East. The second period of crusading historiography was ushered in by the rationalists who called the crusaders adventures and brigands and considered the crusading war "a savage fanaticism". The crusades had taken their place in public opinion " among the monuments of folly and tyranny". The third period turned the tide of opinion about the crusades. A sympathetic attitude toward the Middle Ages, including the crusaders, emerged in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries under the influence of romanticism and nationalism and can be seen in the favorable depictions of the crusaders in literature, art and music. The image of the crusaders had partially recovered. After the French Revolution, nationalism made the crusaders the symbol of European expansion. Finally, they were considered the soldiers of justice without a religious meaning. On the other hand, the image of the crusades, as seen from Islamic world, has always been unchangeable, and it is as plunder. Before the coming of Islam, Christianity was the religion of the majority in the Middle East. Islam has governed the Middle East, North Africa & Spain since the 8th century. The crusading campaign was an unexpected invasion in the Muslim Levant. Muslim divided the world two parts. The first is "Dar al-Islam(House of Islam)" that is the Islamic community. The second is "Dar of al-Harb(House of War) that is outside "Dar al-Islam". Although the infidels occupied the part of Dar al-Islam which was originally infidel`s territory, Islam considers that infidels invaded Muslim territory. There the Crusading War can be expedition as the viewpoint of European, and it can be the invasion as Islamic World viewpoint.

이집트의 대영 독립투쟁(1914-1922) - 이집트 민족주의자의 움직임을 중심으로 : 이집트의 대영 독립투쟁(1914-1922)

송경근(Song Kyung Keun) 한국중동학회 2005 韓國 中東 學會 論叢 Vol.25 No.2

Khedive Ismail(1863-1879) sought to transform Egypt into a country that Europe would respect in European terms. However the greatest transformation of Egypt led to the international bankruptcy. The bankruptcy of Egypt brought greater British control over Egyptian affairs. After "Urabi"s resistance against the British control over Egypt the Britain occupied it. Egypt was governed by the ""Veiled Protectorate"" which means any Egyptian minister can"t refuse the demand of British advisers. For the ten years of British occupation the nationalist movement showed no signs. But the British occupation gradually accelerated Egyptian discontent and activism. In 1906 the incident of Dinshawai encouraged to revive the Egyptian nationalism under the Mustafa Kamil until his premature death 1908. Ottoman Empire went to war against the Allies in 1914. Egypt"s Turkish tie had become an anomaly. Britain cut it decisively in December. And they deposed Khedive Abbas from his position. A pliable uncle Husein Kamil was given the title of ""sultan"" to underscore the break with Ottoman Empire. Nationalists still in Egypt were put under house arrest, the Legislative Assembly was adjourned indefinitely and political life went into suspension. World War 1 was a watershed for Egypt. Four long years of war proved massively unsettling for Egypt. Then Egyptian had increased hostility toward the British presence in Egypt during the war; Wartime difficulties reinforced their desire to end the British occupation of Egypt. After ending the World War 1 no Englishman foresaw a revival of Egyptian nationalism. But Sa"d Zaghlul and his followers organized the Wafd(delegation), gathered signatures in towns and villages on deposition authorizing the movement"s leaders to make the case for the ""complete independence" of Egypt. The Wafd became Egypt"s premier political organization. They led the uprising of Egyptian people against Britain. Britain crushed it in force. But the situation was not settled. On February 22, 1922 London issued a unilateral declaration of Egyptian independence. It was a qualified form of independence, however.

무함마드 알리(1805-1848)의 이집트 개혁에 관한 연구

송경근 ( Song Kyung Keun ) 아시아문화학술원 2016 인문사회 21 Vol.7 No.4

본 논문은 현대 이집트의 역사를 시작한 무함마드 알리의 등장에서부터 그의 이집트 개혁의 시작, 진행, 결과, 영향 순으로 진행되었다. 그리고 마지막으로 그의개혁이 현대 이집트 역사에서 주는 의미를 생각하여 보았다. 본인은 이 논문에서 무함마드 알리의 집권 과정, 개혁 과정을 살펴보면서, 그의 개혁이 이집트의 현대사에서 끼친영향과 역사적 의미를 밝혀보고, 거기다가 이집트에서 이집트인의 위치가 어떻게 변하였나를 정리하였다. 무함마드 알리의 이집트 개혁은 자신의 권력유지를 위해서 시작되었다. 그는 자신의 안정적 권력유지를 위해서 강력하고 충성스러운 군대를 원했다. 그는 그것을 위해서 유럽의 프랑스나 영국군의 모델을 도입할 것을 원했다. 그러나 그런 군의 개혁의 성공은 이집트전체의 개혁을 필요로 했다. 결국 그의 개혁은 현대 이집트를 만들어냈다. 그의 개혁은 외형적으로 서구열강의 개입으로 실패하였지만, 그것은 현대 이집트의 초석을 만들었다. 그는 그 자신을 위해서 이집트를 개혁하였고, 이집트인들은 그의 개혁에 강제로 참여했지만, 그들의 역할의 증대와 함께 그들의 위치도 상승하여 갔으며, 궁극적으로 1952년에 이집트인을 위한 이집트를 만들었다. 즉 무함마드 알리의 개혁은 이집트인을 위한 이집트를 만드는 시작이었다. 이 논문은 한 국가나 문명이 다른 국가나 문명과 충돌하였을 때에 나타나는 반응 중에 한 지도자가 자신의 필요에 따라 상대편의 우세한 부분을 받아들여서, 자신의 국가나 문명권을 변화시키는 모습을 연구한 것이다. 이 논문은 하나의 국가나 문명이 다른 국가나 문명과 충돌해서 일어나는 변화의 사례를 연구하는 데에 좋은 자료가 될 수 있는 논문이다. This research is progressed from the appearance of Muhammad Ali, who has begun the Modern Egyptian history, and the start of Egyptian reformation, its process, result, and affection. Lastly, I interpreted the reformation of Modern Egypt during the reign of Muhammad Ali. I examined at Muhammad Ali``s seizing power process, the process of reformation, and beyond that, how his reformation affected on Modern Egypt history, in terms of historical meaning. Moreover, how the social status of Egyptian has changed during the reformation. He began the reformation of Egypt to keep the power securely. He wanted the strong, loyal, and faithful army to keep and secure his power. He wanted to adopt the model of French and Britain army for it. However, to succeed the army reformation, Egypt needed the reformation in the general field. After all, his reformation has brought the Modern Egypt. Although the intervention of European Superpower caused the failure of the Muhammad Ali``s Egyptian reformation superficially, yet it has become the foundation of the modern Egypt. He reformed Egypt for himself and Egyptians participated reformation by the order and force of Muhammad Ali. However, participating the reformation progressively, their class position was ranked higher than before. Ultimately, they built Egypt for Egyptians in 1952. Thus his reformation was the start of Egypt by Egyptians. This research looked at when one``s nation or civilization clashes with other nation or civilizations. Then how one``s leader accept the predominant power in their necessity and this lead to change their nation or civilization. Thus, this research is a good reference, whom are looking for one``s nation or civilization clash with another nation or civilization.

오만해양제국의 융성과 추락

송경근(Song, Kyung-Keun) 한국중동학회 2010 韓國 中東 學會 論叢 Vol.31 No.1

Archaeological evidence suggests that an early form of civilization existed in Oman at least 5,000 years ago. The Omanis were among the first Arabs to embrace Islam, back in 7th century AD, and Oman became an Ibadhi state ruled by an elected religious leader, the Imam. Oman's position on some of the world's most important trade routes between Africa and Asia has given it a unique dimension. The Portuguese arrived by force in 1507 with a view to protecting supply lines to the east. They were driven out of their main bases, first from Hormuz in 1622, eventually from Muscat in 1650, by Sultan ibn Saif Al-Ya'aribi. During al-Ya'aribah Dynasty(l624-1744), Oman entered the prosperous period and many of its great buildings and forts were built. But tribal warfare over the election of a new Imam halted this expansion and Persian forces invaded the coastal areas. In 1744, Omani tribes elected Imam Ahmad ibn Said, founder of the present Al-Busaidi Dynasty. He expelled the Persian invaders, united the country, restored Oman's fortunes and moved the capital from the interior to Muscat. The Omani empire reached the height of its power in the mid-19th century under Said ibn Sultan. He extended control all the way to Zanzibar and Mombassa in Africa, and to parts of Persia, Pakistan, and India. When Said ibn Sultan died in 1856 the empire was divided between his two sons. One became the Sultan of Zanzibar and the other, the Sultan of Muscat and Oman. Thereafter the fortunes of Oman as a maritime power declined, accelerated by the introduction of steamers. This put the Omanis at a disadvantage since their ships ceased to be competitive in the carrying trade. The British exacerbated this situation by pressing Oman to end the trade in slaves and arms for which it had been known. Many of the sultan's advisers were British and the army itself was commanded by British officers.

나폴레옹의 침입이 이집트에 끼친 영향

송경근(Song Kyung Keun) 韓國中東學會 2015 韓國 中東 學會 論叢 Vol.36 No.1

On July 1st, 1798, Napoleon and French army landed at Alexandria. Some western scholars viewed the expedition as war of aggression, yet some Egyptian scholars viewed as the starting point of modernization, and appraised it positively. The relative importance between the army/weapons and scholars/science is still remained to be discussed. However, one thing for sure, the expedition marked as the fundamental turning point in the history of Egypt. This provided opportunity to structural changes in Egypt, such as, politics, economy, society, and culture. In other words, it has transformed the underdeveloped state of Egypt into an improved, modernized nation. The France weapon and printing press demonstrated the military power and the cultural advances together. It is not easy to distinguish the essential nature of the invasion between the two. Nevertheless, the one important factor that distinguishes Napoleon's invasion from other aggressions is the modernization of government administration and cultural advances. Napoleon's military expedition of Egypt was war of invasion. From a military perspective, it was absolute failure. However, the short-lived French occupation of Egypt began a long-term French effect on Egypt. The French occupation became the main catalyst for the change, yet it became the path where Egypt can never come back.

이븐 칼둔의 아사비야에 대한 연구

송경근(Song,Kyung-Keun) 한국중동학회 2016 韓國 中東 學會 論叢 Vol.36 No.3

Ibn Khaldun is a great historian who wrote book called Muqaddimah in 14th century. In the book, he showed the continuous rise and fall of dynasty, and political change. He argued, Asabiyah played the most significant role at that time. It brought social solidarity, with group unity and cohesion. This was the power to achieve the change of authority. The life of people was divided into two types, Umran badawi and Umran hadari. Umran badawi built the nation, based on the power of Asabiyah, and this evolved into Umran hadari. The nation will be weakened and fallen after its foundation. Because Asabiyah will be corrupted and abandoned. The religion could be strengthen Asabiyah. However, the religion could have not strengthen that much. Ibn Khaldun believed, Asabiyah existed before the appearance of Islam.

이집트 국내 갈등의 분석과 해결에 대한 연구

송경근(Song, Kyung-Keun) 한국중동학회 2013 韓國 中東 學會 論叢 Vol.34 No.1

This paper researched the analysis of the domestic conflicts & its solution in Egypt. The factors of domestic conflicts can be divided into by four types: are political, religious, economic, and social. The four variables causing the conflicts are applied to the human needs theory, such as the needs for control, security, justice, rational stimulation, and identity. The increase and decrease of these conflicts are dependent upon the realization of the needs of control, security, justice, rational stimulation, and identity. The core of the increase and decrease of conflicts are dependant upon the relation between the Islamist and the secularist in Egypt. Other factors of conflicts are affected by political & economical situation. In addition, the needs which it tries to solve, which are the factors of the conflicts, are the solution for the conflicts.

1798년(나폴레옹 침입) 이후 현대 이집트 기독교도의 상황에 대한 연구 -콥트를 중심으로-

송경근(Song, Kyung-Keun) 한국중동학회 2017 韓國 中東 學會 論叢 Vol.37 No.3

This paper explores the history, present and future of Egyptian Christians in modern Egypt. Most Egyptian Christians are called Copts, referring to native Christians in Egypt. A major part of this paper is focused on Copts. This paper is divided into three parts according to modern Egyptian history: monarchy era, republican era, and the recent period after the January 25, 2011 revolution. After Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798, Western systems and culture flew into Egypt. This change in the society stimulated the Christians in the Islam society, which made them dissatisfied with the role of ‘Dhimmi’ who were regarded as second-class citizens. The Christians turned into a part of the leading force in the transformation of Egyptian society with Muslims and were equally treated as Muslims but at a superficial level. Nevertheless, Egyptian Christians have changed a lot according to who the ruler is or what the political system is. This paper analyzes the situation of modern Egyptian Christians according to the political changes including the history of Christianity in Egypt and the relationship between Egyptian government and Egyptian Christianity. The purpose of this paper is to see their current situation and future among Muslims who are the majority in Egyptian society. The conclusion of this paper is that, although the current situation of Egyptian Christians is not favorable, they will adapt according to variously changing situations and survive, as they had existed for a long time as a minority group.

이집트의 1919혁명에 관한 연구

송경근(Song, Kyung-Keun) 한국중동학회 2017 韓國 中東 學會 論叢 Vol.38 No.2

This paper begins with the British occupation of Egypt and continued until the end of the 1919 revolution. It deals the Egyptian occupation of Britain and the resurgence and growth of Egyptian nationalism, the Egypt and British rule in the First World War, the 1919 Revolution and the Egyptian independence struggle, the Egyptian independence and the result of the 1919 Revolution, the comparison of the Egyptian 1919 Revolution with Korean Samil Movement. From the course of this study, I will identify the traits of the 1919 revolution, which is the purpose of this paper, and present the examples of how past colonial nations resisted the colonial rule of the empires as well. In this way, the paper will clarify an important part of modern history in the Middle East. This paper will precisely exhibit the similarities and differences in comparison between the 1919 Revolution in Egypt and Korean Samil Movement which will help to grasp the 1919 Revolution from our standpoint.