1970년대의 유민화된 민중과 디세미네이션의 미학

나병철 ( Byung Chul Na ) 청람어문교육학회(구 청람어문학회) 2015 청람어문교육 Vol.56 No.-

1970년대의 산업화 시대는 개발주의 이데올로기가 국민을 동원한 시기였지만 실제로는 많은 사람들이 심리적·실제적인 유민으로 떠도는 시기이기도 했다. 민족중흥을 앞세운 교의적인 위대한 국민의 서사는 수행적 과정에서 양가적으로 디세미네이션의 상태로 미끄러지고 있었던 것이다. 이 논문은 그런 양가적 관계를 삶권력(bio-power)과 죽음정치(necropolitics)의 구성적 관계를 통해 살펴보았다. 당시의 국가적 개발주의는 사람들을 경제성장과 문화생활의 삶권력으로 유혹했지만 농촌이나 빈민촌 출신의 하층민들은 죽음정치적 노동에 시달려야 했다. 죽음정치적 노동이란 죽음에 이르도록 착취하면서 쓸모없어진 신체와 생명은 유기하는 것을 말한다. 이런 죽음정치적 노동은 트랜스내셔널한 맥락의 권력에 의한 것으로 당시의 노동자들은 세계 자본주의의 분할구도에 따라 값싼 노동에 시달려야 했던 것이다. 그 때문에 농촌으로부터의 이주는 있었지만 안정된 정착은 있을 수 없었으며 하층민들은 노동지옥에 시달리거나 정처 없이 여기저기 떠돌아 다녀야 했다. 그런 심리적·실제적인 유민들은 낯선 두려움(unhomely)을 경험해야 했는데 이 당시의 소설들은 그런 심리를 경험하는 사람들의 소외된 삶을 그리고 있다. 우리는 『삼포 가는 길』, 『영자의 전성시대』, 『미스 양의 모험』, 『별들의 고향』, 『몰개월의 새』 등을 통해 그처럼 낯선 두려움을 경험하는 인물들의 삶을 살펴보았다. 특히 『몰개월의 새』에서는 막장에 몰린 죽음정치적 노동자들끼리의 존재론적 연대의 표현이 나타남을 알 수있었다. 다른 한편 이 시대의 소시민이나 중간층의 사람들은 이중적인 상태에서 하층민들의 고통에 공감하게 되는데, 그 과정은 철거민의 문제를 다룬 『아홉 켤레의 구두로 남은 사내』와 『난장이가 쏘아올린 작은 공』 연작(특히 『칼날』)에서 암시된다. 이 시기에 막다른 곳에 이른 사람들의 존재론적 연대나 그들의 고통에 대한 소시민들의 공감은 물밑의 디세미네이션의 연대를 생성시키고 있었다. 디세미네이션의 연대는 개발주의의 국민의 서사를 파열시키면서 초국가적 맥락의 권력에 연관된 죽음정치의 대한 존재론적 대응을 암시하고 있었다. The era of industralization in the 1970s was the period when developmentalism-oriented ideology mobilized the people, but actually many people were adrift as psychological, practical migrants during that period. The pedagogical great national narratives setting forth national restoration were sliding into ambivalent dissemination in the performative process. This paper looked into such ambivalent relations in terms of constructive ones of bio-power and necropolitics. The then national developmentalism tempted people with economic growth and bio-power of a cultural life, but the lower classes from a rural area or poor village had to suffer from necropolitical labor. Necropolitical labor means abandoning bodies and lives which become useless while exploiting workers even up to their last legs. Such necropolitical labor was attributable to power in the frame of transnational context, and the then workers had to be harassed with cheap labor according to the partition composition of global capitalism. Therefore, there was migration from farming areas, but the migrants couldn``t dare to dream about stable settlement; instead of that, the lower -class people had to be pestered by labor hell, or wander about here and there aimlessly. Such psychological, practical drifting people had to experience unhomely fear, and the then novels are portraying the isolated life of the people experiencing such psychology. We looked into the life of the characters who experienced such unhomely fear through the works, such as A Road to Sampo, Young-Ja``s Heydays, Miss Yang``s Adventure, Hometown of stars, and A Bird of Molgaewol, etc. In particular, in the work A Bird of Molgaewol, it is learned that there appears an expression of ontological solidarity between necropolitical workers who are driven into a dead end. On the other hand, the petite bourgeois or people in the middle classes of society during this period came to empathize with the pain of the lower class people in an ambivalent state, and the process is implied in the works, such as The Man who was left as Nine Pairs of Shoes which addressed the issue of evacuees, and serial works of The small Ball shot by a Midget(especially in Knife Edge). During this period, the ontological solidarity between the people who were driven into a dead end, or the empathy of the lower middle class citizens with their affliction were forming the solidarity of behind-the-curtain dissemination. The solidarity of dissemination was implying the ontological response to necropolitics involved in power in the frame of transnational context while rupturing national narratives based on developmentalism.

일반논문 : 유민화된 민중과 디세미네이션의 미학 -1920년대 문학을 중심으로-

나병철 ( Byung Chul Na ) 현대문학이론학회 2015 現代文學理論硏究 Vol.0 No.60

이 논문에서는 식민지 시대의 유민의 발생이 식민지 자본주의에서 나타난 필연적인 현상으로 보고 유민에 대한 문학적 표현의 중요성을 검토했다. 식민지 자본주의는 경제적 수탈 이전에 총독부의 국가기구에 의한 생체권력과 죽음정치로 작용했다. 경제적 수탈만을 강조하면 우리는 그에 대한 대응으로 민중운동과 노동자와 농민의 문제를 중시하게 된다. 그러나 자본주의와 결탁한 생체권력과 죽음정치는 과도한 폭력으로 식민지 유민을 대거 발생시켰다. 또한 농민과 노동자들도 생명의 위협에 시달리는 잠재적인 유민의 상태로 만들었다. 그 때문에 유민들은 민중들의 낯선 두려움(unhomely)의 심리를 실제적 현실의 사건으로 보여주는 은유로 작용하고 있었다. 근대문학의 완성을 보여준 1920년대의 시와 소설들이 일제히 유민의 문제를 다룬 것은 우연이 아니다. 예컨대 현진건의 『고향』.(1926), 한용운의 『당신을 보았습니다』(1926), 김소월의 『바라건대는 우리에게 우리의 보습대일 땅이 있었더면』(1925), 이상화의 『빼앗긴 들에도 봄은오는가』(1926) 등은, 모두 유민과 연관된 민족의 발견을 표현한 작품들이다. 그 점에 있어서는 프로문학의 경우에도 크게 다르지 않다. 예컨대 김기진이 ‘제2기적 작품’으로부른 『낙동강』(조명희, 1927)이나 임화가 ‘시대의 에폭(epoch)’으로 말한 『과도기』(한설야, 1929)는 모두 유민의 문제와 연관이 있다. 물론 유민들은 그 자체로는 저항의 주체가 되기 어렵다. 그러나 유이민에 대한 공감의 네트워크는 국민 이전에 디세미네이션의 연대를 만들면서 그것에 의해 민족을 발견하게 했다. 우리는『고향』『『바라건대는 우리에게 우리의 보습대일 땅이 있었더면. 『당신을 보았습니다』 등을 통해 디세미네 이션으로서의 민족의 발견을 살펴볼 수 있었다. 또한 『낙동강』이나 『과도기』같은 프로문학에서도 실제적.심리적 유민들에 대한 공감의 네트워크가 민중적 연대의 근원임을 확인할 수 있었다. 이처럼 우리는 민중이나 민족을 앞세운 조직적 운동 이전에 유민이나 디세미네이션에 대한 공감의 연대가 피식민자의 보다 근원적인 대응이었으며 실제로 문학을 통해 그것이 표현되고 있었음을 살펴보았다. This Thesis examined drifting people which generated by colonial capitalism. Colonial capitalism not only extract labor from people but also exercise violence by bio-power and necropolitics. The generating of many drifting people in colonial period was due to oppression of necropolitics. We examined drifting people in colonial period in relation to the violence by bio-power and necropolitics. The violence by bio-power and necropolitics is revealed in Hyun Jin-Gun``s novel and Kim So-Weol``s poem. Modern Korean literatu was completed by the works of Hyun Jin-Gun, Kim So-Weool, Han Yong-Woon, and Yee Sang-Hwa who revealed drifting people due to oppression of bio-power and necropolitics. Similarly, KAPF``s writers as Cho Myung-Hee and Han Seol-Ya completed modern Korean literature by their works which portrayed drifting people. They also represented drifting people due to oppression of bio-power and necropolitics. For Example, Cho Myung-Hee``s Nak-Dong River and Han Seol-Ya``s A Period of Transition represented agony and anxiety of drifting people before they portrayed organizing people in colonial period. Drifting people and people in hometown altogether had the psychology of unhomly which involved agony and anxiety. Because of this, they could not form nation but generate dissemination. However it was through dissemination and drifting that colonial people could experience modern culture. We examined modern Korean literature in early colonial period, so that we reveal that dissemination and drifting are essential to generate modern Korean culture and politics.

좀비의 기원과 변형: 아프리카 디아스포라 종교에서 동시대 대중문화 상징으로

노민정 종교문화비평학회 2023 종교문화비평 Vol.43 No.43

This article investigates the historical origin of the zombie from French Caribbean during the Atlantic Slave Trade and traces the transformation of the concept until twentieth-century global popular culture. Particularly, this article illuminates how the latter twentieth-century zombies effectively imported the idea of infection and apocalypse into the concept. In analyzing the recent variant of the zombie, the article utilizes the contemporary assessment of biopolitics and Achille Mbembe (1957~)’s necropolitics. In the fir st half of the ar ticle, I explor e the etymology and ear ly usage of the word “zombie”. I show that the word originated against the backdrop of the Transatlantic Slave Trade through the mixture of Central and West African religious culture as well as European religious beliefs. Since its birth in the seventeenth century, the zombie transformed during the French colony of Saint-Domingue(1659~1804), Post-Revolution Haiti(1804~1914), and the US Occupation of Haiti(1915~1934) period. Specifically, Haitian Vodou religious elements and the zombie became closely associated with each other, and the popular cultural expression and images of Haitian Vodou and the zombie spread through Hollywood films in the US and to the world. Until 1968, the zombie mainly referred to lethargic and soulless bodies that labored under the spell of a bokor (or houngan, Haitian Vodou religious specialists), which reminded people of the history of slave trade and the regional culture of the Caribbean. However, George Romero’s The Night of the Living Dead(1968) introduced infectious zombies that attacked people, causing mass infection and bringing about the end of the world. Such forms of the zombie dominate the narrative of global popular culture on the zombie. In the latter half of this article, the focus is on the post-1968 zombie, especially on the elements of apocalypse and infection. Mbembe’s necropolitics is a concept that again invokes the historical reality of slavery and colonial domination. In addition, necropolitics also refers to the biopolitics of hier ar chy, w hich accompanies a r egime of p ower that selectively chooses whom to live or die. The right to live does not apply to everyone equally; rather, in the management of state and global infectious diseases and the human body, there are hierarchies among the living, deciding who is worth saving or not. The historicity and contemporary idea of the zombie can be seen as a deathly mirror image of the history and legacy of slavery, hierarchy between humans, and discriminatory distribution of the right to live, all of which permeates the contemporary transnational conditions of living. 이 글은 프랑스어권 캐리비안에서 탄생한 좀비의 역사적 배경을 살펴보고, 20세기 후반 등장하기 시작한 대중문화 속 좀비가 전염성 및 종말론적 요소들과결합하는 현상을 분석한다. 특히, 이러한 좀비 상징의 변용이 동시대의 생체권력(biopower) 및 네크로폴리틱스(necropolitics)와 관련해 어떤 함의를 가질 수있는지 살펴보았다. 이 글의 전반부에서는 좀비(Zombie)라는 단어의 어원과초기 용례를 살펴본다. 좀비는 대서양 노예무역이라는 역사적 배경 속에서, 중서부 아프리카와 유럽의 종교문화가 결합하여 탄생한 개념이었다. 좀비는 프랑스식민지 생도맹그(Saint-Domingue)와 미군정기 아이티를 거치며 식민지 상황에서 보두(Vodou)와 연관되어 변형, 대중문화 속 재현을 통해 미 대륙 및 전 세계로퍼져 나갔다. 1968년 이전까지만 해도 좀비는 주술사의 지배 아래 있는 무기력한노예들로, 대서양 노예무역의 역사적 배경을 상기시키는 국지적이고 개별적인주술적 개념일 뿐이었다. 그러나 조지 로메로의 《살아있는 시체들의 밤(1968)》 이후 사람을 공격하여 좀비 바이러스를 대량으로 전염시켜 세계의 종말을 불러오는 좀비가 등장하고, 이후 좀비 내러티브의 주류로 자리잡는다. 이 글의 후반부에서는 이러한 1968년 이후 좀비의 종말론적 요소와 전염성에 주목하여 아쉴 음벰베의 네크로폴리틱스와의 접점을 모색하였다. 음벰베의 네크로폴리틱스는 아이티의 좀비 개념을 논의할 때 등장했었던 노예제와 식민지배의 역사와 직접적으로관련되는 개념이면서, 후기 좀비 상징을 논의할 때에는 전염병을 관리하는 생체권력의 선택적인 적용, 즉 각 개인의 생존의 권리를 차별하는 위계와도 연결되었다. 좀비 개념의 역사성과 변용을 논할 때 공통적으로 드러나는 노예제, 인간사이의 위계, 그리고 이로 인한 생존권의 차별적인 부여는 대중문화의 흥미로운종교상징을 넘어 동시대 사회에 대한 죽음의 거울상으로도 볼 수 있다.

‘죽여도 되는’ 사람은 어떻게 탄생했는가? -인종혐오와 동물화-

염운옥 ( Yeom¸ Woonok ) 고려대학교 역사연구소 2022 사총 Vol.105 No.-

본 논문에서는 비인간화의 양상으로서 ‘동물화’를 중심으로 인종혐오의 생성과 작동의 역사를 살펴보았다. 흑인의 동물화는 근대 자본주의 경제체제의 등장과 밀접히 관련되며, 현재까지 영향을 미치고 있다는 점에서 다른 소수자의 동물화와 다르다. 흑인노예의 동물화에 기반을 둔 대서양노예제는 근대 자본주의 탄생과 시원적 축적의 계기였으며 이를 통해 자본주의는 인종자본주의가 되었다. 생명정치가 인종과 만날 때 흑인은 폐기가능한 인구가 되었고, 음벰베가 말하는 죽음정치의 대상이 되었다. 또한 흑인의 동물화는 19세기 인종분류, 인종론, 진화론을 통해 정당화되고, 자연화되었다. 유럽의 18, 19세기 자연학자들과 인류학자들은 분류의 욕망에 충실했고 인종론을 체계화했다. 이 과정에서 흑인은 동물에 가까운 위치를 부당하게 할당받았다. 인종혐오와 연결된 동물화는 인간이 비인간 동물과 분류학적으로 갈라져 나온 계열화를 거꾸로 밟아 가는 과정, 즉 진화의 이면에 있는 퇴화에 대한 불안의 반영이었고, 이를 인종적 타자 흑인에게 투사한 결과물이었다. 자연에서 ‘니그로’의 위치를 둘러싼 인류학 담론은 인종혐오와 동물화를 체계화하는 도구였다. 인종혐오의 대상은 비단 흑인만의 아니라 무슬림, 난민, 이주민으로 확장되고 있다. 혐오와 동물화는 흑인만 겪는 것이 아니다. 흑인이 먼저였을 뿐 누구나 이주민이나 난민이 되고, 죽음에 내몰릴 수 있는 가능성이 상존한다. 전 지구적 차원에서 죽음정치가 심화되는 가운데 혐오에 맞서 연대해야 할 필요성은 더욱 절실해지고 있다. This study analyses a history of racial hate and its mechanism focusing on ‘animalization’ as de-humanization. Animalization of black is different from animalization of other minorities in its close connection with modern capitalist economy system and continuity of its affect until even today. Transatlantic slavery served as a momentum of the birth of modern capitalism and primitive accumulation. Through transatlantic slavery capitalism becomes racial capitalism. When biopolitics meets ‘race’, blacks became ‘disposable’ population and the object of Archille Mbembe’s necropolitics. Animalization of black was also justified and naturalized by taxology, racial theory, and evolutionism in the 19th century. Through racialism blacks were supposed to belong to neighboring position of animals. Animalization and racial hate were the result of projection which whites made between evolution and degeneration. Anthropological discourses on the ‘negro’s place in nature were the instrument of racial hate and animalization. Blacks were not the only victim of Racial hate. Muslims, refugees, and migrants also were also suffered racial hate and animalization. Whoever becomes the victim of global necropolitics, and it is the very condition of solidarity.

느린 폭력의 불평등한 영향과 환경 부정의 대안모색 : 수잔 안토네타의 『독성화된 몸』

서길완(Gil Wan Seo) 한국영미문학교육학회 2021 영미문학교육 Vol.25 No.3

This study places toxic pollution incidents within the theoretical framework of “slow violence” and “necropolitics,” revealing that environmental injustice can be overlooked, or even concealed, leading to greater damage. Additionally, ways to counter slow violence are explored. Each point is illustrated in Susanne Antonetta’s environmental autobiography Body Toxic, which talks about the author and her neighbors’ experience with the effects of exposure to toxic chemicals, analyzed here as a form of slow violence. As a result, it becomes apparent why long-term exposure to toxic substances should be deemed slow violence, and the exact way in which this kind of violence exerts itself. Slow violence is structural and gradual, and has historically been the result of economics dictating government policies, often at the cost of health. Therefore, the process of causing slow physical and mental harm to those living in ethnic and deprived areas, as in the case of Antonetta and her neighbors, needs to be examined within the theoretical framework of necropolitics. Slow violence is an environmental injustice that is intensified and perpetuated by racial and social inequality, and this study considers how it can be countered and overcome.

여성의 몸, 그리고 국가권력 - 시신정치(necropolitics)와 죽음의 작업을 중심으로 -

이헬렌 동국대학교 일본학연구소 2019 일본학 Vol.48 No.-

This paper examines three short stories that depict the life of Japanese sex workers during imperial and postwar Japan. Though set in different historical moments and settings, Hayashi Fumiko’s “Borneo Daiya”(1946), Nakamoto Takako’s “Only One”(1953), and Hayashi Kyoko’s “Yellow Sand”(1978) bring to light the issue of gendersexuality and its relation to the sovereignty. By employing necropolitics as a theoretical framework, I show how those female bodies whose worth is only recognized through their sexuality become subject to the “death work” by the same state that called on them. Close readings of these stories not only give voice to the silenced and deserted women from Japan’s dark past, but also challenge the theory of necropolitics by focusing on a statesponsored violence against women and the sovereignty’s drive to let them die. 이 논문은 세 편의 작품, 하야시 후미코(19031951)의 「ボルネオダイヤ 보르네오 다이아」 (1946), 나카모토 다카코(19031991)의 「基地の女 기지의 여자」 (1953), 그리고 하야시 쿄코(19302017)의 「黄砂 황사」(1978)를 ‘여성의 몸’ 이라는 개념을 중심으로 함께 읽어내어 국가적 주권(sovereignty)이 ‘생명정치’의 형태로 전환되는 과정에서 어떻게 젠더섹슈얼리티와 상호관계를 맺게 되는지에 주목하여 논의를 전개하였다. 특히 아킬레 음벰베의 시신정치(necropolitics)와 죽음의 작업(work of death)을 분석의 틀로 접근하여 일본의 제국주의팽창과 패전으로 이어지는 시대에 여성이 성애화되어 폐기처분되는 과정에 집중하여 necropolitics 이론에 ‘젠더’라는 지시선을 제시하였다.

Necropolitics and Trauma in Heinz Insu Fenkl's Memories of My Ghost Brother

( Park Geum Hee ) 한국현대영어영문학회 2020 현대영어영문학 Vol.64 No.3

This article examines the properties of econo-political power exercised in a military camptown shortly after the Korean War, and the negative impact of that power on the villagers' lives, as revealed in Fenkl's novel Memories of My Ghost Brother. From a Freudian perspective, this work focuses on the concept of “necropolitics,” describing social and political power that dictates the death or life of people. As expected, there are serious corruptions, perversions, sexual abuses, black-market transactions, infanticides, racist adoptions, and disastrous and appalling deaths into the camptown where necropolitics operates, while the Korean government casts its people aside, as the poverty-stricken villagers desperately pursue money flown in with the U.S. military. Like the protagonist Insu's cousin Gannan, who became a prostitute and then committed suicide, many Korean women at that time struggled against Confucian sexism, and American racism added to this gendered burden and forced Korean sex workers, YangKongjus to kill themselves or their own babies, or at least give them up for adoption, when GIs who might marry the women did not accept their babies. Insu's father's racist discrimination, as well as neighbors' misdeeds, incessantly wounded the protagonist Insu, a son of a YangKongju and an American GI. These painful experiences caused Insu to suffer from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders, including anxiety, melancholia, and guilt as shown through his frequent nightmares or dreadful daydreams. His traumatic neurosis is deepened with nightmares about the ghost of his elder brother, Christopher, whom his mother gave up for adoption to marry his father. Also, the horrible memory of seeing Gannan's corpse always triggers Insu to recollect other ill-fated people's deaths in the camptown. This suggests that his traumatic neurosis will continue endlessly. (Chosun University)

Specters of Empire: Transnational American Bio / Necropolitics and Spectropolitics in Heinz Insu Fenkl’s Memories of My Ghost Brother

( Seonna Kim ) 한국영어영문학회 2019 영어 영문학 Vol.65 No.2

The article examines the two forms of ghostly or spectral figures and their dynamics depicted in Heinz Insu Fenkl’s autobiographical novel, Memories of My Ghost Brother. The ghosts or specters in the novel, which signify absent presence and not only death but also an afterlife, foremost manifest the spectral existence of U.S. empire and its global bio / necropolitics hovering across Asia in the Cold War state of exception that became the rule or normalcy and producing death and violence. They also refer to the excluded and displaced subjects produced and maintained by the specter of U.S. empire and rendered ghostly or spectralized, including camptown prostitutes and their Amerasian children. Drawing on critical biopolitical studies and Jacques Derrida’s notion of the specter, I argue that these forms of spectral figures not only make legible the afterlives of the U.S. Cold War interventions across Asia, but also make it possible to imagine the ethics and politics of the ghostly subjects. While existing scholarship on the novel views the spectral subjects merely as a precarious and victimized figure, my study turns to the question of ethics imagined in the novel that seeks a spectropolitics of the ghostly others who form ethical transnational, transracial relationships to move beyond the spectralizing bio / necropolitical order of U.S. empire toward a decolonized future.

Nora Okja Keller’s Fox Girl: Biopolitics, Necropolitics, and a State of Exception

박금희 한국현대영어영문학회 2022 현대영어영문학 Vol.66 No.2

This essay aims to discuss the effects of the Korean government’s hygiene policies on the lives of prostitutes and their families in a U. S. military base village, or kijichon in Nora Okja Kelle’s Fox Girl from the viewpoints of Achille Mbembe’s necropolitics and Michel Foucault’s biopolitics. When it comes to prostitution, it can be said that kijichons were in a state of exception, from Georgio Agamben’s perspective. Using sexually transmitted diseases testing (STD testing) as an example, Fox Gil shows how the hygiene policy pushes ex-Japanese comfort woman and kijichon prostitute Duk Hee into a worse life condition, as a prostitute in a show window, “a fish tank,” while also leading her daughter Sookie into prostitution. Because the policy was unconcerned with the test subjects and their families as a biopolitical attempt to ensure the health of the U. S. soldiers, all of the damage goes to them. The biggest problem is that the completely biased policy was implemented, even though state-regulated prostitution in Korea was abolished in 1948, and the Anti-Prostitution Law was enacted in 1961. The terrible result of the government’s policies was that such policies turned kijichons places where women cannot normally live, as we can see when Hyun Jin Kong, another victim of Korean blood- related culture, runs away to America with Sookie’s daughter Myu Myu.

한국 좀비 아포칼립스 서사의 시체정치: 자본, 국가, 인민의 재현 방식을 중심으로

복도훈 문학과영상학회 2022 문학과영상 Vol.23 No.1

This paper examines the aspects of capital, state, and people that provide content to the form constituting the Korean zombie apocalypse narrative. By doing so, we looked at the political unconscious of the necropolitics inherent in the Korean zombie narrative. First, through “Happy Apocalypse!”, we analyzed the nowness of the Korean zombie apocalypse genre. Second, through “Pale Horse”, we considered that today’s capital that zombificated people’s lives is a necronomy. Third, through “Kingdom” and “Asinjeon”, we analyzed the feature of a necropolis that necros the people’s bodies based on physical politics. Finally, through the previous works, we tried to pay attention to the aspects of the necro-people who resist capital-state governance while creating it. This paper attempted to prove that the Korean zombie apocalypse narrative is the dominant species of Korean popular culture that unconsciously represents the collective fear and hope inherent in the collective form of life of Koreans.