한국 마애불의 조형과 신앙 : 고려·조선을 중심으로 = Styles of, and religious beliefs associated with, Ma-Ae-Bull (Buddha images carved on rock cliffs) from Ko-reo (918-1391) to Chosun (1391-1910) in Korea.

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

Buddha images have been carved on rock cliffs from about 600 AD (starting in the south-west region of Korea) until the 20th century. To date, approximately 200 Buddha images (individuals or groups) have been found nationwide. Whilst similar Buddha images have been found in Indian and Chinese stone cave temples, Korean Buddha images have unique characteristics (hereafter, called "Ma-Ae-Bull" collectively) because of Korea's geology (mountain areas with hard rocks - granite) and pre-existing religion before Buddhism (Animism).
The aim of this thesis was to investigate ‘Ma-Ae-Bull’, constructed during the Ko-reo (918-1391) and Chosun (1391-1910) period, with a view to understanding the style of ‘Ma-Ae-Bull’ and its associated religious beliefs. Ma-Ae-Bull gained the most popularity during the Ko-reo period and it was documented in a number of sources during Chosun period. The focus of this thesis was on three issues associated with Ma-Ae-Bull. Firstly the location and carving techniques were examined. Secondly, the style changes of Ma-Ae-Bull across time were studied. Finally, religious beliefs associated with Ma-Ae-Bull were investigated. Ma-Ae-Bull, when it was considered with these three aspects, provided an important insight into Korean Buddhist art. The main findings of this thesis are summarized as follows.
The location of Ma-Ae-Bull has an important meaning. There are three types of Ma-Ae-Bulls. The covert type of Ma-Ae-Bull, the oldest form, occupied a position on the ridge of a mountain, to give it a special significance. Around the late 7th century (Sil-la dynasty period), Ma-Ae-Bull was often located on the summit of a mountain, visible from towns, hence the summit type. Later, Ma-Ae-Bull stood on a street corner (during 9th century, late Sil-la dynasty period) or town entrance (10th century), could be named as a street corner type. Ma-Ae-Bull, was therefore considered to be more and more popular with time. During Ko-reo and Chosun period, these three types coexisted.
In terms of techniques, carving techniques for Ma-Ae-Bull were developed from early simple copying techniques to various low-relief techniques. High-relief was used on a central rock surround by a group of rocks. Line carvings were used on relatively flat surface of a rock. The integration of line or circle carvings with relief might reflect a belief in which a natural rock was regarded as a form of Buddha. For example, a three-dimensional head which was made from a different rock was mounted on rock carvings to combine circle carvings with relief. This might have originated from a religious belief that a turtle shaped rock was considered as spiritual. The various techniques in constructing Ma-Ae-Bull, therefore, were products of the natural environment and preexisting religious beliefs.
During the Ko-reo period (918-1391), Ma-Ae-Bull became familiar to the public and was widely constructed. Ko-reo Ma-Ae-Bulls, found nationwide, showed a variety of characteristics which are grouped into three themes. Firstly, in addition to the legacy of Sil-la carving techniques, a new trend of constructing supersized Ma-Ae-Bull (the head to body ratio became disproportionately larger) co-existed with long-lasting local tradition (i.e., localized individuality) during early Ko-reo period. During mid Ko-reo period, many high-quality low-relief Ma-Ae-Bulls were constructed with continuing influence of these two trends. The shape of Ma-Ae-Bulls became formalized during late Ko-reo period. For example, the broad-shouldered Ma-Ae-Bulls were widely constructed. Size and locality were consistent factors throughout Ko-reo period. Supersized Ma-Ae-Bull with a disproportionately big head might give a sense of power, while the locality would give Ma-Ae-Bull a sense of vitality. These characteristics may reflect the fact that Ma-Ae-Bull had become more familiar to the public and was widely constructed during the Ko-reo period. As a consequence, the style of Ma-Ae-Bull had been changed from the ideal shape of Sil-la to disproportionate and unusual shapes of Ko-reo, for instance, a face with prominent cheekbones.
In Chosun, a Confucian country, the shape of Ma-Ae-Bull was secularised, characterized by small eyes with a flat nose, and a loss of massiveness. However, its social influence appeared to be unchanged, as the Royal family constructed two Ma-Ae-Bulls with a political intention, one during early and the other during late Chosun period. In early Chosun Ma-Ae-Bull, one can see the influences of Ko-reo Ma-Ae-Bull. However, in late Chosun Ma-Ae-Bull, characteristics seen in paintings started to appear. This might be due to the fact that the construction of Ma-Ae-Bull was on the decline, in terms of their number and artistic significance. Highly developed Buddhist painting techniques might have been used in an effort to overcome this. Consequently, Ma-Ae-Bull in this period had highly descriptive line carvings. The involvement of Buddhist artists in constructing Ma-Ae-Bull was also recorded in the literature. In addition, an examination of modern Ma-Ae-Bull showed a further decline (subtle thickness within the relief disappeared).
Religious beliefs projected into Ma-Ae-Bull comprised mainly of traditional and Mi-reuk beliefs. Traditional belief refers to Animism in which mountains and rocks are regarded as having spirits. Here, Animism included the rock and mountain beliefs (believing the existence of spirits in rocks and mountains), believing a town to be a spiritual entity, and believing the interrelationship of geographical shapes to have spiritual importance. Among these, the rock belief might have affected the location of Ma-Ae-Bull which was carved on unusual-shaped rocks on the ridge of a mountain to give it a special significance. Rubbing the surface of a rock (on which Ma-Ae-Bull was carved) in order to receive a good luck was an associated religion, which is still performed today. The relationship with the mountain belief can be found in the summit type Ma-Ae-Bull. This might reflect the identification of the mountain spirit with Buddha in wishing a good luck. The street corner type Ma-Ae-Bull might have been thought to protect roads (Ma-ae-Bull on a street corner) and towns (those located in town entrance). Moreover, Ma-Ae-Bull in town entrance might have been regarded as a substitution of a menhir.
Mi-reuk belief refers to a religious belief that enlightenment is possible in the current world by encountering Mi-reuk (popularized from 7th century).The association between Ma-Ae-Bull and the Mi-reuk belief can be found in the literature. It is revealed that a number of Ma-Ae-Bulls have also been called Mi-Reuk. Despite a paucity of recordings on Ma-Ae-Bull, many recordings on Mi-reuk can be found. For example, there was a Ma-Ae Mi-Reuk-Bull constructed by order of the royal family to pray for the happiness of the late King Sai-jo. According to some recordings from the Chosun period, Ma-Ae-Bull was in fact generally referred to as Mi-reuk. Therefore, except Ma-Ae-Bulls that have specific names, the rest of Ma-Ae-Bulls were called Mi-Reuk.
In summary, Ma-Ae-Bulls have been popularized, as reflected in location changes with time. It was the Ko-reo period during which various Ma-Ae-Bull styles were established. This influence lasted until the end of the Chosun period. Ma-Ae-Bull was a product from Korean integration of religious triad: Animism, Mi-reuk belief and Buddhism. Ma-Ae-Bull, therefore, can be considered as one of Korea’s representative relief art works.

국문 초록 (Abstract)

한국의 마애불은 산곡에서 마을로 입지의 변천을 통해 대중화되었고, 고려시대의 토착화 과정에서 다양한 조형들이 만들어진 이래 조선시대 그리고 근대에까지 이어져 온 한국의 대표적인 부조예술이다. 마애불을 조성한 관념에는 특히 민간신앙과 미륵신앙이 투영되어 있었다. 한국의 마애불은 예술, 불교, 민간신앙의 세 영역이 만나 이루어진 한국적인 예술이라고 할 수 있다.

목차 (Table of Contents)

• (국문초록) = ⅱ
• Ⅰ. 서론 = 1
• Ⅱ. 마애불의 형식적 분류 = 6
• 1. 마애불의 조성위치에 따른 분류 = 6
• 2. 마애불의 조각기법 = 16
• Ⅲ. 고려·조선시대 마애불의 조형적 경향 = 24
• 1. 고려시대 마애불의 조형적 단계 = 24
• 가. 초기 = 25
• 나. 중기 = 46
• 다. 후기 = 63
• 2. 조선시대 마애불의 조형적 변천 = 78
• 가. 전기 = 78
• 나. 후기 = 94
• Ⅳ. 마애불 조성에 반영된 신앙 = 110
• 1. 민간 신앙 = 110
• 2. 미륵신앙 = 114
• Ⅴ. 결론 = 132
• 영문초록 = 135
• 참고문헌 = 140
• 마애불의 시대별·지역별 분포도 = 154
• 마애불 목록 = 155
• 도판목록 = 160
• 도판 = 164