With the continued intensification of urbanization, the rapid transformation of traditional industrial structures, and the escalating global climate crisis, contemporary cities are increasingly confronted with complex challenges in environmental manag...
With the continued intensification of urbanization, the rapid transformation of traditional industrial structures, and the escalating global climate crisis, contemporary cities are increasingly confronted with complex challenges in environmental management and land redevelopment. Particularly in cities that have historically evolved around heavy industries and large-scale manufacturing, numerous abandoned industrial sites—commonly called “brownfields”—have emerged as byproducts of urban growth. These sites typically suffer from compounded issues such as soil, water, and air pollution, along with infrastructural decay, leading to disruptions in urban landscapes and critical constraints on sustainable urban development and ecological security. While past urban development models prioritized expansion and contributed to economic acceleration, they also triggered excessive exploitation of land resources and continuous degradation of natural ecosystems. In response to the growing awareness of sustainable development, contemporary urban regeneration has increasingly shifted from merely enhancing infrastructure and land value to pursuing a multidimensional balance encompassing ecological restoration, social inclusivity, and cultural continuity. Within this paradigm shift, the ecological regeneration of brownfields is no longer viewed as a simple spatial reorganization but rather as a comprehensive and integrative urban strategic action. Accordingly, brownfield regeneration has evolved beyond the logic of physical replacement to embrace a holistic design agenda that emphasizes the restoration of urban ecosystem health, the reconfiguration of human–nature relationships, and the enhancement of accessibility and diversity in public spaces. Central to this agenda are objectives such as the recovery of biodiversity, the reconstruction of ecological functions, and the implementation of green infrastructure. At the same time, it must also encompass the revitalization of publicness in urban society and the reinvigoration of local communities. Ultimately, such efforts contribute to the establishment of a multidimensional, collaboratively constructed, and equitably shared system of urban resilience.
This study was conducted against the backdrop of rapid urbanization and the growing urgency of sustainable development, with a focus on systematically analyzing the ecological restoration efficiency of representative brownfield regeneration projects in China. Specifically, it aims to empirically investigate the operational mechanisms of Biophilic Design in enhancing urban ecological performance. Biophilic Design, beyond its conventional interpretation as a spatial aesthetic or a concept within environmental psychology, functions as a strategic framework for constructing next-generation ecological cities. By integrating elements of nature, it enhances the inherent resilience of ecosystems while improving human-centered spatial experience and environmental adaptability in urban settings. To achieve these objectives, the study first conducted a comprehensive review of existing theories related to ecological restoration and the reconfiguration of human–nature relationships within urban brownfield regeneration. Based on this theoretical foundation, it developed an analytical framework was developed for assessing urban ecological restoration strategies, emphasizing integration and adaptability. This framework incorporates not only a systematic logic of environmental factors but also the interactive dynamics between social indicators and design strategies. In doing so, it seeks to provide a scientific and theoretical basis for evaluating and improving the ecological efficiency of brownfield regeneration initiatives. The research process consists of the following steps.
First, a comprehensive literature review was conducted to examine the concept of brownfields across various countries, identifying both the commonalities and distinctions among the definitions presented in previous research. By synthesizing existing academic discourse, this study derived a comparative understanding of how brownfields are conceptualized globally. Subsequently, the causes and typologies of brownfield formation were systematically categorized, and the physical and environmental characteristics of brownfields were analyzed based on the theoretical framework proposed by Niall G. Kirkwood, Dean of the Harvard Graduate School of Design and a pioneer in brownfield research. In addition, a keyword analysis was performed on a total of 8,478 academic publications from the past decade to identify scholarly trends and evolving research directions in the field of brownfield regeneration. Building on this theoretical foundation, the study analyzed the formation processes and current policy frameworks of brownfield regeneration within Chinese cities. This analysis revealed a range of persistent challenges and structural limitations that affect the implementation and effectiveness of regeneration projects in the Chinese urban context. Through this theoretical investigation, the study affirms that urban brownfield regeneration is not merely a matter of resolving environmental degradation but is also deeply intertwined with sociocultural contexts, policy conditions, and the psychological restoration of urban inhabitants. These findings highlight the necessity of adopting a multidimensional and integrative approach in the design strategies for brownfield regeneration.
Second, an analytical framework for Biophilic Design was established through a comprehensive examination of its conceptual foundations and its applications in urban regeneration contexts. Biophilic Design, rooted in biological and psychological principles, is a design strategy premised on the intrinsic connection between humans and nature. Its core objective is to enhance both the ecological quality of urban spaces and users' psychological well-being through the systematic integration of natural elements into the built environment. By synthesizing previous studies, the key components of Biophilic Design were structurally categorized. These include the integration of green spaces, maximization of natural light and ventilation, utilization of water features, incorporation of natural forms and textures, and the enhancement of connectivity with ecological habitats. Based on this theoretical groundwork, the study analyzed various evaluation methodologies related to urban regeneration efficiency, comparing qualitative and quantitative approaches. To that end, this research adopts a dual-system methodology that combines Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) for quantitative evaluation and Focus Group Interviews (FGI) for qualitative assessment. Through this approach, existing literature on urban regeneration was critically reviewed, and an initial multidimensional evaluation framework was developed—one that encompasses ecological, social, and psychological dimensions. This integrated methodology provides a scientific basis for systematically measuring the effectiveness of Biophilic Design within urban regeneration projects.
Third, the initial evaluation indicators were validated and refined through two rounds of expert Focus Group Interviews (FGIs). During this process, indicators deemed difficult to quantify or of low practical feasibility were eliminated, and a structured system of metrics suitable for application within the Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) framework was developed. To further verify the reliability and validity of the indicator system, a survey consisting of 300 questionnaires was designed and distributed. The responses collected provided empirical evidence supporting both the quantitative reliability and the practical applicability of the proposed indicators. In addition, to enhance compatibility with the DEA model, the study re-examined the theoretical and practical limitations of the indicator framework based on prior research. Indicators with high redundancy were removed, and the structure of the framework was reorganized into ecological and social dimensions. This restructuring improved the explanatory power and practical feasibility of the analysis model, establishing a robust empirical foundation for the multidimensional evaluation of urban brownfield regeneration efficiency. The DEA model was subsequently applied to six representative brownfield regeneration cases in major Chinese cities. Through this application, key performance metrics were calculated, including Technical Efficiency (TE), Pure Technical Efficiency (PTE), Scale Efficiency (SE), Returns to Scale (RTS), and Overall Efficiency (OE). These analyses enabled a comparative assessment of each regeneration project’s efficiency and effectiveness to ecological design strategies and resource inputs. Ultimately, this empirical approach provided evidence of the structural validity and practical effectiveness of biophilic ecological restoration strategies in the context of urban brownfield regeneration.
The research findings indicate that in high-efficiency cases (e.g., DMU2), there was a strong alignment between resource inputs and output performance. In particular, the integration of functional complexity and ecologically grounded design contributed to the effective operation of the project. DMU2 demonstrated an effective combination of environmentally friendly design elements and spatial strategies tailored to local characteristics. Multidimensional inputs—such as the strategic placement of natural elements, enhanced public accessibility, and energy-efficient design—were shown to directly contribute to the qualitative improvement of output indicators. In contrast, DMU6 exhibited lower efficiency, particularly in the utilization of public spaces and environmental improvement metrics. This underperformance appears to stem from a spatial design that failed to align with the actual usage patterns of residents, as well as from limited ecological input. These results suggest that urban brownfield regeneration strategies must extend beyond mere physical spatial transformation and instead require a multidimensional design approach that carefully integrates ecological functionality with social acceptability.
This study theoretically demonstrates that Biophilic Design strategies, in the context of urban brownfield regeneration, function not merely as tools for introducing greenery or enhancing aesthetics but as core components enabling integrated design across spatial, functional, and operational dimensions. By combining ecological sensitivity with user-centered spatial experience, Biophilic Design should be strategically incorporated from the early stages of urban regeneration projects. Notably, the study empirically validates that DEA-based pre-simulation techniques can serve as effective tools for informing policy development and evaluating design alternatives. This approach offers a practical methodology for assessing the efficiency and feasibility of design strategies in advance, thereby highlighting its relevance for both policy and practice. Furthermore, the study outlines directions for future research. It emphasizes the need to expand the scope of analysis to include global case studies that reflect diverse regional and cultural contexts, thereby enabling cross-cultural validation of Biophilic Design’s applicability and effectiveness. In particular, integrating qualitative outcome indicators—such as mental resilience, psychological comfort, and social acceptance—alongside ecological efficiency would allow for a more comprehensive approach to urban ecological restoration. This research also sets its analytical baseline in the post-pandemic year of 2023, deliberately excluding the period from 2020 to 2022 when urban activities were significantly constrained by COVID-19. However, given the time-lagged nature of urban regeneration outcomes, future longitudinal studies incorporating data from five or ten years post-implementation will be necessary. Indicators such as ecosystem recovery, resident satisfaction, and economic sustainability often reveal their full impact only over the long term, underscoring the importance of sustained monitoring frameworks to evaluate the durability of design strategies. In conclusion, this study empirically confirms the quantitative effects of Biophilic Design-based ecological restoration strategies in urban brownfield regeneration and offers actionable insights for the development of sustainable urban regeneration models. Moving forward, an integrated approach that harmonizes ecological sensitivity with human-centered spatial strategies should be further advanced in urban design and policy-making practices.