Korean and Chinese Preschoolers' Handwriting and its Predictors : A Cross-Script Comparison of Home Literacy Environment and Sensorimotor Skills = 한국과 중국 유아의 글씨 쓰기 및 예측요인: 비교문자적 관점에서의 가정문해환경과 감각운동기술

국문 초록 (Abstract)

이 연구는 비교문자적 관점에서 한국과 중국 유아의 글씨 쓰기 및 영향요인을 비교 평가하고자 하였다. 한글은 표음문자로 규칙적인 구조를 갖는 반면, 한자는 표의 문자로 복잡하고 다양한 문자 기호의 조합으로 이루어져 있다. 서로 다른 특징을 가진 문자체계에서의 글씨 쓰기 발달 및 예측요인에서는 차이가 있을 수 있다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 먼저 한-중 유아 글씨 쓰기 수행을 다양한 과제를 통해 확인하고자 하였다. 또한 글씨 쓰기의 하위영역과 이 연구에서 설정한 개인차 요인(가정문해환경과 감각운동기술)에서 한-중 집단 간 차이가 있는지 검증하고자 하였다. 그리고 이러한 예측요인이 유아의 글씨 쓰기를 설명하는 데에 한-중 유아 간 유의한 차이가 있는지 알아보고자 하였다.
이를 위하여 한국 서울에 거주하는 만 5세 유아 127명과 중국 베이징에 거주하는 유아 130명 및 유아의 어머니를 대상으로 자료를 수집하였다. 어머니를 대상으로 가정문해환경 및 사회인구학적 배경에 관한 설문조사를 실시하였고, 개별 유아를 대상으로는 글씨 쓰기 과제(이름 쓰기, 따라 쓰기, 자유 쓰기)와 감각운동기술(소근육운동기술, 시지각기술, 시각-운동통합) 검사를 실시하였다. 수집된 자료는 SPSS 29.0 프로그램을 이용하여 기술통계, 독립표본 t-검정, 회귀분석 등을 분석하였고, AMOS 27.0 프로그램을 활용하여 다집단 분석을 실시하였다. 이 연구의 주요 결과는 다음과 같다.
첫째, 유아의 글씨 쓰기 수행은 과제에 따라 다양한 특성을 보였다. 한-중 유아 모두 따라 쓰기, 이름 쓰기 과제에서 높은 점수를 받은 반면, 자유 쓰기 과제에서는 유아 간 개인차가 크게 나타났다. 유아는 자유 쓰기 과제에서 창안적 문자나 그림 등으로 글자를 대체하는 경향이 있었는데, 이는 유아가 인지적 요구가 낮고 연습이 많이 된 과제에서는 높은 수행을 보이지만, 복잡한 자유 쓰기 과제에서는 어려움을 겪음을 시사한다.
둘째, 글씨 쓰기 수행과 예측요인에서 한-중 유아 간 유의한 차이가 발견되었다. 글씨 쓰기 하위영역 중 관습성을 제외한 모든 영역에서 집단 간 차이가 유의하였다. 중국 유아는 글씨 쓰기 정교성에서 한국 유아에 비해 높은 점수를 받았고, 한국 유아는 명료성과 유창성에서 높은 수행을 보였다. 가정문해환경의 하위요인인 가정인쇄물노출에서는 두 집단 간에 차이가 없었으나, 발현적 쓰기연습 및 관습적 쓰기연습이 포함된 가정 쓰기연습에서는 한국 유아가 중국 유아에 비해 더 많이 하는 것으로 나타났다. 또한 감각운동 기술의 모든 하위영역(소근육운동기술, 시지각기술, 시각-운동통합)에서 중국 유아가 한국 유아에 비해 더 높은 수준을 보였다.
셋째, 글씨 쓰기 예측요인에서 한-중 유아 간에 공통된 요인과 차별적 요인이 모두 발견되었다. 소근육운동기술은 한-중 유아 모두에서 글씨 쓰기에 공통적으로 중요한 요인으로 나타났다. 그러나 다른 예측요인에서는 차이가 있었다. 가정문해환경 중 가정인쇄물노출은 한국 유아의 글씨 쓰기를 더 잘 예측한 반면, 중국 유아의 글씨 쓰기에서는 관습적 쓰기연습과 시지각 기술이 차별된 요인으로 나타났다.
넷째, 이 연구에서 설정한 예측요인이 글씨 쓰기에 미치는 영향력이 한-중 유아에 따라 차이가 있는지 확인하기 위해 다집단 분석을 실시한 결과, 감각운동기술은 한-중 유아 모두에게 글씨 쓰기의 유의한 예측요인으로 나타났지만, 집단 간의 차이가 유의하지 않았다. 가정문해환경과 글씨 쓰기 간의 관계에서는 집단 간 유의한 차이가 있었다. 즉, 한국 유아에서는 가정문해환경이 풍부할수록 글씨 쓰기 수행이 유의하게 우수했지만, 중국 유아의 경우 이 관계가 유의하지 않았다.
본 연구는 한-중 유아 간 글씨 쓰기 양상과 그에 영향을 미치는 예측요인에세 공통점과 차별점이 모두 존재함을 확인하였다. 이러한 차이는 각 문자체계의 특성과 초기 문해 경험의 차이로 설명할 수 있으며, 각 문자체계에 맞는 글씨 쓰기 교육의 필요성을 제기한다.
이는 지금까지 주로 영어권 문자체계에서만 이루어진 문해발달 연구를 보다 더 넓은 문자체계에 확장하였으며, 문자체계와 초기 문해 경험의 중요성을 확인하였다. 또한 다양한 글씨 쓰기 과제와 평가 방법을 포함함으로써 유아의 글씨 쓰기에 나타나는 특성을 보다 자세히 이해할 수 있었다. 나아가 이 연구는 한-중 글씨 쓰기에 영향을 미치는 구제척인 요인을 확인함으로써 유아의 쓰기 발달 기제를 보다 깊이 이해하고, 한-중 유아의 쓰기 지도에 관한 구체적인 교육적 함의를 제시하였다.

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

The present study examined the handwriting performance and its predictors among Korean and Chinese preschoolers from a cross-script perspective. Korean Hangul, with its consistent grapheme-sound correspondences and limited symbol sets, contrasts with Chinese Hanzi, which has inconsistent character-sound mappings and a large symbol set. Children exposed to and learning these scripts may differ in handwriting performance and its predictors. This study first assessed preschoolers’ handwriting performance across various tasks and then compared handwriting and its predictor variables (home literacy environment and sensorimotor skills) between the two groups. Finally, the shared and unique predictors of handwriting between Korean and Chinese preschoolers were identified, and examined whether these predictors’ associations with handwriting differ across the two groups.
A total of 257 mothers and their five-year-old preschoolers from Seoul, Korea (n = 127) and Beijing, China (n = 130) participated in this study. To address the research questions, mothers completed a questionnaire on the home literacy environment and sociodemographic factors. The children were individually assessed on handwriting tasks (copying, name writing, and free writing) and sensorimotor skills (fine motor skills, visual perceptual skills, and visual-motor integration) during institution visits. The collected data were analyzed using statistical analysis programs, SPSS 29.0 and AMOS 27.0. The major findings are summarized as follows.
First, the results revealed that children exhibited varying characteristics in their handwriting performance across different tasks. While many Korean and Chinese children demonstrated high proficiency in tasks such as copying written syllables and correctly writing their names, their performance showed large variability in the free writing task. Children often employed invented spelling or used pictures to represent unknown syllables, reflecting a notable divergence in their ability to manage more complex writing demands. These findings indicate that children generally performed better on simpler, more frequently practiced tasks such as copying and name writing but faced challenges with the more intricate demands of free writing.
Second, significant differences were observed in both handwriting performance and its predictors between Korean and Chinese preschoolers. All handwriting dimensions, except for handwriting conventions, revealed significant group differences. Chinese children outperformed their Korean counterparts in handwriting accuracy, whereas Korean children demonstrated superior performance in legibility and fluency. Regarding the home literacy environment, while children in both groups received similar levels of support for home print exposure, Korean children engaged in more frequent writing practice at home than their Chinese counterparts. Additionally, Chinese children scored significantly higher across all sensorimotor components—fine motor skills, visual perceptual skills, and visual-motor integration—indicating a relative advantage in sensorimotor processing among the Chinese group.
Third, the study identified both shared and unique predictors of handwriting between Korean and Chinese preschoolers. Fine motor skills emerged as a critical predictor of handwriting performance across both groups. However, distinct differences were observed in other predictors: home print exposure was a stronger predictor of handwriting proficiency, whereas conventional writing practice and visual perceptual skills were more predictive of handwriting outcomes for Chinese children.
Fourth, the multigroup analyses revealed no significant difference in the relationship between sensorimotor skills and handwriting across groups, whereas a significant group difference was found in the path from the home literacy environment to handwriting. Specifically, positive reports from parents about the home literacy environment correlated with higher handwriting performance among Korean preschoolers, while this relationship was not significant in Chinese preschoolers.
Taken together, the current study suggests that although there are commonalities in handwriting performance and its predictors between Korean and Chinese preschoolers, notable differences also exist. These variations may be attributed to the distinct characteristics of each script and the differing early literacy experiences associated with learning these scripts. It underscores the need for tailored handwriting instruction that accounts for script-specific characteristics to more effectively enhance early handwriting outcomes.
This study enriches the cross-script literature on early literacy acquisition, which has predominantly focused on English alphabetic scripts, by emphasizing the critical role of script characteristics and early literacy experiences in learning specific scripts. By employing various tasks and evaluating different dimensions of handwriting as indicators of early handwriting proficiency, this research provides a comprehensive understanding of preschoolers’ handwriting. Furthermore, a thorough examination of handwriting predictors across different scripts could provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying children’s handwriting development.

목차 (Table of Contents)

• I. Introduction 1
• II. Theoretical Background and Literature Review 10
• 1. Children’s Literacy Development Across Cultures and Scripts 10
• 1) Theory of Children’s Literacy Development Across Cultures 10
• 2) Theory of Children’s Literacy Development Across Scripts 13
• 2. Script Characteristics and Early Writing Experiences in Korea and China 15
• 1) Script Characteristics and Early Writing Experiences in Korea 15
• 2) Script Characteristics and Early Writing Experiences in China 17
• 3. Children’s Emergent Writing and Handwriting 19
• 1) Theoretical Perspective on Children’s Emergent Writing 19
• 2) Children’s Handwriting Development and Assessment 20
• 4. Cross-Script Comparisons of Children’s Handwriting Predictors 25
• 1) A Cross-Script Comparison of Home Literacy Environment on Handwriting 26
• 2) A Cross-Script Comparison of Sensorimotor Skills on Handwriting 28
• III. Research Questions & Definition of Key Terms 32
• 1. Research Questions 32
• 2. Definition of Key Terms 34
• 1) Handwriting of Preschoolers 34
• 2) Home Literacy Environment 36
• 3) Sensorimotor Skills 37
• IV. Methods 39
• 1. Participants 39
• 2. Measures 42
• 1) Handwriting Tasks and Assessments 42
• 2) Home Literacy Environment 48
• 3) Sensorimotor Skills 49
• 3. Procedures 54
• 1) Preliminary Study 54
• 2) Main Study 56
• 4. Data Analysis 57
• V. Results 59
• 1. Korean and Chinese Preschoolers’ Performance on Handwriting Tasks 59
• 1) Korean Preschoolers’ Performance on Handwriting Tasks 59
• 2) Chinese Preschooler’s Performance on Handwriting Tasks 65
• 2. Comparisons of Handwriting, Home Literacy Environment, and Sensorimotor Skills Between Korean and Chinese Preschoolers 72
• 1) A Comparison of Handwriting Between Korean and Chinese Preschoolers 73
• 2) A Comparison of Home Literacy Environment Between Korean and Chinese Preschoolers 75
• 3) A Comparison of Sensorimotor Skills Between Korean and Chinese Preschoolers 76
• 3. Predictors of Handwriting in Korean and Chinese Preschoolers 78
• 1) Predictors of Handwriting Accuracy in Korean and Chinese Preschoolers 78
• 2) Predictors of Handwriting Legibility in Korean and Chinese Preschoolers 81
• 3) Predictors of Handwriting Fluency in Korean and Chinese Preschoolers 84
• 4) Predictors of Handwriting Conventions in Korean and Chinese Preschoolers 85
• 4. Multigroup Comparison Between Korean and Chinese Preschoolers 88
• VI. Discussion 94
• 1. Conclusion and Discussion 94
• 2. Implications and Limitations 103
• References 105
• Appendix 121
• 국문초록 134

참고문헌 (Reference)

1. Want to Improve Childrens Writing?, Graham, S., Education Digest, 76(1), 49–55, , 2010

2. Childrens written and oral spelling, Bourassa, D., Treiman, R., 21(2), 183–204, , 2000

3. Child development and emergent literacy, Whitehurst, G. J., Lonigan, C. J., Child Development, 69(3), 848–872, , 1998

4. Cognitive profiles of Korean poor readers, Cho, J. R., &, Ji, Y. K., 17(4), 312-326, , 2011

5. Name writing in Mandarin-speaking children, Yin, L., Treiman, R., 116(2), 199– 215, , 2013

6. Understanding cumulative cultural evolution, Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Derex, M., Kline, M. A., Mesoudi, A., Muthukrishna, M., ... & Thomas, M. G., 113(44), E6724-E6725, , 2016

7. Writing in preschoolersAn age-related analysis, Tolchinsky-Landsmann, L., & Levin, I, 6, 319–339, , 1985

8. Contexts of child rearingProblems and prospects, Bronfenbrenner, U, 34(10), 844–850, , 1979

9. Learning to see the patterns in Chinese characters, Chen, X., Wu, X., Shu, H., Li, W., Anderson, R. C., Ku, Y. M., 17(1), 41–56, , 2013

10. Child and home predictors of childrens name writing, Bowles, R. P., Gerde, H. K., Skibbe, L. E., Martoccio, T. L., 2012, 1–12, , 2012

11. Handwriting development competency and intervention, Majnemer, A., Feder, K. P., Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 49(4), 312–317, , 2007

12. Lower-level developmental skills in beginning writing, Berninger, V., Rutberg, J., Remy, E., Abbott, R., Yates, C., Cartwright, A., 4(3), 257–280, , 1992

13. Visual spatial skillA consequence of learning to read?, Tolchinsky, L., Aram, D., McBride-Chang, C., Zhou, Y., Levin, I., Cho, J.-R., 109(2), 256–262, , 2011

14. Reading and writing wordsA cross-linguistic perspective, Mohseni, F., Pan, D. J., McBride-Chang, C., Scientific Studies of Reading, 26(2), 125–138, , 2022

15. A comprehensive meta-analysis of handwriting instruction, Santangelo, T., Graham, S., Educational Psychology Review, 28(2), 225–265, , 2016

16. A capacity theory of writingWorking memory in composition, McCutchen, D., 8(3), 299–325, , 1996

17. Product and process evaluation of handwriting difficulties, Weiss, P. L., Rosenblum, S., Parush, S., Educational Psychology Review, 15, 41–81, , 2003

18. A process model of writing development across the life span, Fuller, F., Whitaker, D., Berninger, V. W., Educational Psychology Review, 8(3), 193–218, , 1996

19. Componential skills in early spelling development in Korean, Kim, Y. S., 14(2), 137–158, , 2011

20. Cognitive and environmental predictors of early literacy skills, Swaab, H., de Jong, M. T., Bus, A. G., Davidse, N. J., Huijbregts, S. C. J., 24(4), 395–412, , 2011

21. Handwriting readiness among digital native kindergarten students, Ray, K., Sheedy, A. J., Lane, A. E., Dally, K., Brent, J., 41(6), 655–669, , 2021

22. The relationship between handwriting style and speed and legibility, Graham, S., Berninger, V., Weintraub, N., 91(5), 290–296, , 1998

23. The role of visual processing in learning to read Chinese characters, Yin, L., Deacon, S. H., Chen, X., Zhang, J., Luo, Y. C., 17(1), 22–40, , 2013

24. Early differentiation between drawing and writing in Chinese children, Yin, L., Treiman, R., 108(4), 786–801, , 2011

25. Early teaching of Chinese literacy skills and later literacy outcomes, Li, H., Corrie, L. F., & Wong, B. K. M., 178(5), 441-459, , 2008

26. Handwriting fluency and the quality of primary grade students writing, Lei, P. W., Kvistad, A. H., Skar, G. B., Graham, S., Johansen, M. B., Aasen, A. J., Reading and Writing, 35, 509–538, , 2022

27. Chinese character acquisition and visual skills in two Chinese scripts, McBride-Chang, C., Chow, B. W. Y., Zhong, Y., Burgess, S., & Hayward, W. G., 18(2), 99–128, , 2005

28. Cross–cultural similarities in the predictors of reading acquisition, McBride-Chang, C., & Kail, R. V., 73(5), 1392– 1407, , 2002

29. Orthographic learning during readingExamining the role of selfteaching, Cunningham, A. E., Perry, K. E., Stanovich, K. E., & Share, D. L., 82(3), 185– 199, , 2002

30. A review of handwriting researchProgress and prospects from 1980 to 1994, Graham, S., Weintraub, N., Educational Psychology Review, 8(1), 7–87, , 1996

31. Childrens handwriting evaluation tools and their psychometric properties, Feder, K. P., Majnemer, A., Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 23(3), 65–84, , 2003

32. Name WritingA window into the emergent literacy skills of young children, Haney, M. R., 30(2), 101–105, , 2002

33. Development of early handwritingVisual-motor control during letter copying, Hunt, S. C., Maldarelli, J. E., Lockman, J. J., Kahrs, B. A., 51(7), 879–901, , 2015

34. Latent variable modelsAn introduction to factor path and structural analysis, Loehlin, J. C., 2nd ed., , 1992

35. Handwriting legibility across different writing tasks in school-aged children, Barnett, A. L., Rosenblum, S., Fogel, Y., 35(1), 44–51, , 2022

36. Correlates of Korean Hangul acquisition among kindergartners and second graders, McBride-Chang, C., Cho, J. R., 9(1), 3–16, , 2005

37. Emergent writing in preschoolersPreliminary evidence for a theoretical framework, Lonigan, C. J., Puranik, C. S., 49(4), 453–467, , 2014

38. Handwriting in early childhood educationCurrent research and future implications, Dinehart, L. H., 15(1), 97–118, , 2015

39. Phonological awareness and visual skills in learning to read Chinese and English, Huang, H. S., Hanley, J. R., 54(1), 73– 98, , 1995

40. The academic trajectories of children of immigrants and their school environments, Han, W. J., 44(6), 1572– 1590, , 2008

41. Fine motor skills and executive function both contribute to kindergarten achievement, Murrah, W. M., Grissmer, D., Morrison, F. J., Cameron, C. E., Brock, L. L., Bell, L. H., Worzalla, S. L., 83(4), 1229–1244, , 2012

42. Handwriting difficulties in primary school childrenA search for underlying mechanisms, Volman, C., Schendel, B., Jongmans, M., 60, 451–460, , 2006

43. From scribbles to scrabblePreschool childrens developing knowledge of written language, Puranik, C. S., Lonigan, C. J., 24(5), 567–589, , 2011

44. Learning to writeThe role of handwriting for Chinese spelling in kindergarten children, McBride-Chang, C., Lam, S. S. Y., 110(7), 917–930, , 2018

45. The role of self-regulation and transcription skills in writing and writing development, Harris, K. R., Graham, S., 35(1), 3–12, , 2000

46. To read or not to readA meta-analysis of print exposure from infancy to early adulthood, Mol, S. E., Bus, A. G., 137, 267–296, , 2011

47. Strategies for visual word recognition and orthographical depthA multilingual comparison, Bentin, S., Katz, L., Frost, R., 13(1), 104–115, , 1987

48. Cognitive predictors of literacy acquisition in syllabic Hiragana and morphographic Kanji, Inoue, T., Parrila, R., Maekawa, H., Muroya, N., Georgiou, G. K., 30(6), 1335–1360, , 2017

49. Fine motor skills and early comprehension of the worldTwo new school readiness indicators, Aiyer, S. M., Grissmer, D., Grimm, K. J., Steele, J. S., Murrah, W. M., 46(5), 1008–1017, , 2010

50. Role of mechanics in composing of elementary school studentsA new methodological approach, Whitaker, D., Graham, S., Abbott, R. D., Berninger, V. W., Abbott, S. P., 89(1), 170–182, , 1997

51. Character reading and word reading in ChineseUnique correlates for Chinese kindergarteners, McBride-Chang, C., Wang, Y., 37(2), 371–386, , 2016

52. Effects of literacy in early visual and occipitotemporal areas of Chinese and French readers, Szwed, M., Qiao, E., Jobert, A., Dehaene, S., & Cohen, L., 26(3), 459–475, , 2014

53. Visual complexity in orthographic learningModeling learning across writing system variations, Chang, L. Y., Plaut, D. C., Perfetti, C. A., Scientific Studies of Reading, 20(1), 64-85, , 2016

54. The reading process is different for different orthographiesThe orthographic depth hypothesis, Katz, L., & Frost, R., 94, 67-84, , 1992

55. Home literacy practices and preschool childrens emergent writing skillsAn initial investigation, Phillips, B. M., Puranik, C. S., Gibson, E., Lonigan, C. J., 42, 228–238, , 2018

56. Assessment of early handwriting skill in kindergarten children using a Chinese name writing test, Li-Tsang, C. W. P., Tse, L. F. L., Siu, A. M. H., 32(2), 265–284, , 2019

57. Correlates of Chinese kindergarteners word reading and writingThe unique role of copying skills?, Wang, Y., McBride-Chang, C., Chan, S. F., 27(7), 1281–1302, , 2014

58. Parental involvement in the development of childrens reading skillA five-year longitudinal study, Sénéchal, M., LeFevre, J. A., 73(2), 445–460, , 2002

59. A study on Korean young childrens writing development and parents perception of writing education, Park, S. Y., 7(3), 275–285, , 2019

60. Differential effects of home literacy experiences on the development of oral and written language, Lefevre, J. A., Daley, K. E., Thomas, E. M., Sénéchal, M., 33(1), 96–116, , 1998

61. Motor development in 9‐ month‐old infants in relation to cultural differences and iron status, Rodrigues, O., Lozoff, B., Shafir, T., Kaciroti, N., Angulo‐Barroso, R. M., Liang, W., Schapiro, L., 53(2), 196-210, , 2011

62. The effects of orthographic depth on learning to read alphabetic syllabic and logographic scripts, Ellis, N. C., Natsume, M., Stavropoulou, K., Hoxhallari, L., Van Daal, V. H. p., Polyzoe, N., Tsipa, M. L., & Petalas, M., 39(4), 438–468., , 2004

63. Self-regulation moderates the relationship between fine motor skills and writing in early childhood, Bowles, R. P., Chandler, M. C., Gerde, H. K., Pontifex, M. B., Bingham, G. E., McRoy, K. Z., 57, 239–250, , 2021

64. Copying skills in relation to word reading and writing in Chinese children with and without dyslexia, Chung, K. K. H., Tong, X., McBride-Chang, C., 110(3), 422–433, , 2011

65. Longitudinal predictors of reading and spelling across languages varying in orthographic consistency, Georgiou, G. K., Torppa, M., Manolitsis, G., Lyytinen, H., Parrila, R., 25(2), 321–346, , 2012

66. Examining the contribution of handwriting and spelling to written expression in kindergarten children, AlOtaiba, S., Puranik, C. S., 25(7), 1523–1546, , 2012

67. Mothers implicit theories of early literacy instructionImplications for childrens reading and writing, Buell, M. J., Binder, J. C., DeBaryshe, B. D., Early Child Development and Care, 160(1), 119–131, , 2000

68. Cognitive linguistic and print-related predictors of preschool childrens word spelling and name writing, Weitzman, E., Hipfner-Boucher, K., Greenberg, J., Girolametto, L., Milburn, T. F., Pelletier, J., 17(1), 111–136, , 2017

69. Environmental and genetic influences on prereading skills in Australia Scandinavia and the United States, Quain, P., Samuelsson, S., Olson, R., Corley, R., DeFries, J. C., Willcutt, E., Byrne, B., Wadsworth, S., 97(4), 705–722, , 2005

70. Measuring parental literacy beliefs in a socio-economically linguistically and ethnically diverse sample, Severiens, S., Van Steensel, R., Meeuwisse, M., Krijnen, E., 32(4), 608–635, , 2021

71. Phonemic awareness spontaneous writing and reading and spelling development from a preventive perspective, Frost, J., Reading and Writing, 14(5), 487–513, , 2001

72. Childrens writing development and Korean alphabet knowledgeKindergarteners random writing and name writing, Choi, N., 29(5), 67–89, , 2009

73. Chinese childrens character recognitionVisuo-orthographic phonological processing and morphological skills, Li, H., Shu, H., McBride-Chang, C., Liu, H., &, Peng, H., 35(3), 287–307, , 2012

74. Phonological awareness and learning to readA Crosslinguistic perspective In Handbook of Childrens Literacy, Defior, S., pp. 631– 649, , 2004

75. Writing starts with own name writingFrom scribbling to conventional spelling in Israeli and Dutch children, Vries, A. B.-D., Bus, A., Aram, D., Levin, I., 26(3), 463– 477, , 2005

76. Contributions of emergent literacy skills to name writing letter writing and spelling in preschool children, Puranik, C. S., Lonigan, C. J., & Kim, Y. S., 26(4), 465–474, , 2011

77. Name-writing proficiency not length of name is associated with preschool childrens emergent literacy skills, Lonigan, C. J., Puranik, C. S., 27(2), 284–294, , 2012

78. Is handwriting causally related to learning to write? Treatment of handwriting problems in beginning writers, Fink, B., Harris, K. R., Graham, S., 92(4), 620– 633, , 2000

79. Home literacy environment and early literacy development across languages varying in orthographic consistency, Manolitsis, G., Inoue, T., Parrila, R., de Jong, P. F., Landerl, K., Georgiou, G. K., Frontiers in Psychology, 11. 1–11, , 2020

80. The relationship between emergent drawing emergent writing and visual-motor integration in preschool children, Incognito, O., Pinto, G., 31(2), 1–11, , 2022

81. Close interrelation of motor development and cognitive development and of the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex, Diamond, A, 71(1), 44-56, , 2000

82. Development and validation of a fine-motor assessment tool for use with young children in a Chinese population, Siu, A. M. H., Chiu, A. S. M., Lai, C. Y. Y., Yip, C. C. K., 32(1), 107–114, , 2011

83. Effects of cumulative family risks on school readiness skillsA cross-cultural study between the U. S. and Korea, Kim, J., Yu, H., Kim, H. K., 61, 15–24, , 2022

84. Relationships between fine-motor visual-motor and visual perception scores and handwriting legibility and speed, Sollereder, P., Klein, S., Cui, Y., Guiltner, V., 31(1), 103–114, , 2011

85. Curricular and instructional influences on early literacy attainmentEvidence from Beijing Hong Kong and Singapore, Li, H., Rao, N., 13(3), 235–253, , 2005

86. Contributions of the home literacy environment to preschool‐aged childrens emerging literacy and language skills, Weigel, D. J., Martin, S. S., Bennett, K. K., 176, 357–378, , 2006

87. Parental influences on Chinese literacy developmentA comparison of preschoolers in Beijing Hong Kong and Singapore, Li, H., Rao, N., 24(1), 82–90, , 2000

88. Reading acquisition developmental dyslexia and skilled reading across languagesA psycholinguistic grain size theory, Ziegler, J. C., & Goswami, U, 131(1), 3–29, , 2005

89. Cross-script effects of cognitive-linguistic skills on Japanese Hiragana and KanjiEvidence from a longitudinal study, Inoue, T., Parrila, R., Georgiou, G. K., 6(2), 119–134, , 2022

90. How beginning handwriting is influenced by letter knowledgeVisual–motor coordination during childrens form copying, Lockman, J. J., Fears, N. E., 171, 55–70, , 2018

91. The role of home literacy practices in kindergarten childrens early writing developmentA one-year longitudinal study, Kelcey, B., Dinnesen, M. S., Guo, Y., Sun, J., Puranik, C., Breit-Smith, A., 32(2), 209–227, , 2021

92. Writing development of children before entering primary schoolFocusing on graphomotor control and written expression, No, B. R., Doctoral dissertation, Seoul National University] Korean Journal of Child Studies, , 2020

93. The home literacy environment as a predictor of the early literacy development of children at family-risk of dyslexia, Snowling, M. J., Hayiou-Thomas, M. E., Hamilton, L. G., Hulme, C., 20(5), 401–419, , 2016

94. Parent-child joint writing in Chinese kindergartenersExplicit instruction in radical knowledge and stroke writing skills, Lam, S. S. Y., McBride-Chang, C., Writing Systems Research, 5(1), 88–109, , 2013

95. The influence of writing practice on letter recognition in preschool childrenA comparison between handwriting and typing, Longcamp, M., Zerbato-Poudou, M. T., & Velay, J. L., 119(1), 67-79, , 2005

96. Writing fluency and quality in kindergarten and first gradeThe role of attention reading transcription and oral language, Kent, S., Wanzek, J., Petscher, Y., Al Otaiba, S., & Kim, Y. S., 27, 1163-1188, , 2014

97. Curriculum-based measurement of writing in kindergarten and first gradeAn investigation of production and qualitative scores, Coker, D. L., Ritchey, K. D., Exceptional Children, 76(2), 175– 193, , 2010

98. Effects of preschoolers visual perception on reading words in HangulApplication of the test of visual perception for reading, Choi, N., 30(2), 161-177, , 2009

99. Preschool cognitive and language skills predicting Kindergarten and Grade 1 reading and spellingA cross-linguistic comparison, Furnes, B., Samuelsson, S., 32(3), 275–292, , 2009

100. The role of sensorimotor learning in the perception of letter-like formsTracking the causes of neural specialization for letters, Atwood, T. P., James, K. H., 26(1), 91–110, , 2009

101. The influence of sensory-motor components of handwriting on Chinese character learning in secondand fourth-grade Chinese children, Joshi, R. M., Xu, Z., Liu, D., 112(7), 1353–1366, , 2020

102. Does writing system influence the associations between phonological awareness morphological awareness and reading? A meta-analysis, Ruan, Y., Song, S., Li, Y., Shu, H., Georgiou, G. K., 110(2), 180–202, , 2018

103. The preschoolers writing development mothers perception of their writing ability and the status of the writing instruction at home, Kang, J. W., An, J. Y, Early Childhood Education Research & Review, 12(4), 5-24, , 2008

104. Learning through hand- or typewriting influences visual recognition of new graphic shapesBehavioral and functional imaging evidence, Nazarian, B., Boucard, C., Anton, J. L., Longcamp, M., Velay, J. L., Roth, M., Gilhodes, J. C., 20(5), 802–815, , 2008

105. The influence of mothers beliefs guidance and use of resources about emergent and conventional writing on childrens writing ability, Choi, Y. J., Choi, N., 35(2), 47–61, , 2017

106. Direct and mediated influences of home literacy and literacy interest on prereaders oral vocabulary and early written language skill, Frijters, J. C., Barron, R. W., Brunello, M., 92, 466–477, , 2000

107. Beginning to read across languages varying in orthographic consistencyComparing the effects of non-cognitive and cognitive predictors, Georgiou, G., Stephenson, K., Parrila, R., Manolitsis, G., 19(6), 466–480, , 2009

108. Bidirectional relationship between visual spatial skill and Chinese character reading in Chinese kindergartnersA cross-lagged analysis, Sun, H., Lin, D., Zhang, X., 46, 94–100, , 2016

109. Development of Chinese handwriting skills among kindergarten childrenCopying of the composition in Chinese characters and name writing, Li-Tsang, C. W. P., Siu, A. M. H., Tse, L. F. L., 10(1), 40–51, , 2017

110. Handwriting legibility and fluency and their patterns of concurrent relations with spelling graphomotor and selective attention skills, Caravolas, M., Downing, C., 236, 1–23, , 2023

111. The structure of home literacy environment and its relation to emergent English literacy skills in the multilingual context of Singapore, Arshad, N. A., O’Brien, B. A., Ng, S. C., 53, 441–452, , 2020

112. Untangling Chinese preschoolers early writing developmentAssociations among early reading executive functioning and early writing skills, Schmitt, S. A., Zhang, C., Yang, F., Purpura, D. J., Zhang, X., Bingham, G. E., 33(5), 1263–1294, , 2020

113. Testing for a cultural influence on reading for meaning in the developing brainThe neural basis of semantic processing in Chinese children, Fan, L. Y., Chou, T. L., Chen, S. Y., Booth, J. R., Chen, C. W., 3, 1–9, , 2009

114. Differences in the fine motor performance of children in Hong Kong and the United States on the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of motor proficiency, Chui, M. M. Y., Ng, A. M. Y., Fong, A. K. H., Lin, L. S. Y., & Ng, M. W. F., 17(1), 1–9., , 2007

115. Performance on the developmental test of visual-motor integration and its supplementary testsComparing Chinese and U. S. kindergarten children, Tse, L. F. L., Li-Tsang, C. W. P., Siu, A. M. H., 10(4), 408–419, , 2017

116. Remembering the orientation of newly learned characters depends on the associated writing knowledgeA comparison between handwriting and typing, Gilhodes, J. C., Longcamp, M., Velay, J. L., Boucard, C., 25(4), 646–656, , 2006

117. Phonological awareness and morphological awarenessDifferential associations to regular and irregular word recognition in early Korean Hangul readers, McBride-Chang, C., Cho, J. R., Park, S. G., 21(3), 255–274, , 2008

118. Modeling the relationships of parents expectations familys SES and home literacy environment with emergent literacy skills and word reading in Chinese, Liu, C., Manolitsis, G., Georgiou, G. K., 43, 1–10, , 2018

119. The relationship between home literacy practices and developmental trajectories of emergent literacy and conventional literacy skills for Korean children, Kim, Y. S., Reading and Writing, 22(1), 57– 84, , 2009

120. Dimensions of good and poor handwriting legibility in first and second gradersMotor programs visual–spatial arrangement and letter formation parameter setting, Struck, M., Santoro, J., Berninger, V. W., Graham, S., 29(1), 43–60, , 2006

121. Testing the home literacy modelParent involvement in kindergarten is differentially related to grade 4 reading comprehension fluency spelling and reading for pleasure, Sénéchal, M., 10(1), 59-87, , 2006

122. Exploring the underpinnings and longitudinal associations of word reading and word spellingA 2-year longitudinal study of Hong Kong Chinese children transitioning to primary school, Ye, Y., Yin, L., Ruan, Y., McBride-Chang, C., Yan, M., Zheng, M., 26(1), 21–37, , 2022