Nowadays many semiconductor engineers are searching for new materials to replace silicon channels with them for fabrication of high-speed logic and high-density flash memory devices. In order to keep Moore’s law going, germanium or III-V materials w...
Nowadays many semiconductor engineers are searching for new materials to replace silicon channels with them for fabrication of high-speed logic and high-density flash memory devices. In order to keep Moore’s law going, germanium or III-V materials with high hole and electron mobility values have been considered as a potential replacement. By using these materials it is possible for the device engineers to integrate more transistors on a chip with the same area, resulting in better performance and lower power consumption. In addition, one promising approach to increase the areal storage density in NAND flash memory devices is to fabricate memory cells in the vertical direction, leading eventually to replacement of the single crystalline Si channel to polycrystalline Si. In this dissertation, epitaxial Ge on Si substrates and the polycrystalline Si films on silicon oxide were investigated as new channel materials for application of sub-10 nm logic and 3-dimensional (3-D) NAND flash memory devices. Furthermore as an attractive building structure beyond 2-D logic devices Ge nanowires (NWs) were investigated.
In next-generation logic complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) devices, using a Ge-based channel is a well-known method to improve the mobility of electrons and/or holes. Despite such a high speed, the issues of the high cost of Ge wafers and compatibilities with conventional Si CMOS processes have limited Ge’s applications for the channel materials. Over the last several decades Ge-on-Si structures have attracted great scientific and technical interest to resolve these difficulties. First, in order to realize the Ge-on-Si devices, the epitaxial growth of not only the intrinsic Ge layers but also the highly doped and thin Ge layers is required. The in situ doping process, where the dopant precursor such as B2H6 or PH3, and source gas (GeH4 for Ge epitaxy and SiH4, Si2H6, SiH2Cl2, and SiCl4 for Si epitaxy) are introduced into a deposition chamber at the same time during growth, is an alternative doping method to provide a uniform dopant concentration along the depth direction without the post-annealing process as well as its advantage of precise controlling of the junction depth.
In situ B-doped epitaxial Ge films were grown on Si substrates at 600 °C by ultra high vacuum chemical vapor deposition (UHV CVD). The Ge films had a uniform B concentration with respect to depth and the B atoms were substitutionally incorporated into the Ge lattices during growth. For growth of Ge on Si(001), Si(011), and Si(111), the maximum B concentrations in Ge were 1.77 × 1020, 1.40 × 1021, and 1.30 × 1021 cm-3, respectively. For all the substrate orientations, the growth rate of the Ge films increased with the B2H6 flow rate, which was due to an increase in the H2 desorption rate at B-Ge surface sites and a decrease in the misfit strain which originates from lattice constant reduction by B doping. For Si(001), the lattice constants were measured by an asymmetric (224) reciprocal space mapping (RSM) method. The unstrained lattice constant decreased from 5.6574 to 5.6513 A as the B concentration increased from 0 to 0.40%, which corresponds to the reduction in the mismatch from 4.17 to 4.05%. For B-doping on Si(111), Ge islands had a flat (111) top surface at initial growth stage. After coalescence of the Ge islands, continuous Ge layers with a step-and-terrace structure were observed and the height of the steps was ~10 nm regardless of B concentrations. In transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analyses the abnormal stripes caused by TEM image contrast were observed and their spacing was identical to the step height. It is considered that the stripes are associated with the B segregation at the (111) surface during step-flow and Ge reconstructions by B atoms. The lattice constants of Ge were calculated as a function of B2H6 flow rate by asymmetric (153) RSM measurements and it was found that they are decreased with the B2H6 flow rate. The results can be understood on the basis of the increase in the B concentrations measured by secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS). Owing to impurity scattering and thus mobility degradation, the resistivity of the B-doped Ge films was increased despite the increase in the B concentrations.
In contrary, the thicknesses of the Ge layers grown on Si(011) and Si(111) were decreased if the flow rate of PH3 increased. For growth on Si(001), although the thickness increased when PH3 gas was introduced into the chamber by the flow rate of 50 standard cubic centimeters per minute (sccm), over that value the thickness was slightly decreased until 200 sccm. The effect of P atoms on growth of the Ge films was different from that of B atoms. In particular, the step-and-terrace structures which were typical morphologies of Ge when doped with B were not observed for P doping cases. Since the theoretical concentration of P in Ge is as low as 2.0 × 1019 cm-3, the experimental data obtained from SIMS measurements were lower than 1019 cm-3. Due to the low concentrations of P and the small difference in atomic radii between Ge and P, the change in the lattice constant of Ge was small, which was confirmed by RSM measurements.
Although the epitaxial growth of the strain-relaxed Ge layers on the Si wafers resolves the aforementioned issue to some extent, a large lattice mismatch of 4.2% with Si that generates high defect density and rough surfaces in Ge disallows the integration on the Si substrates. The aspect ratio trapping (ART) process, which involves the selective growth of Ge on the Si regions between silicon oxide trench walls, has recently been reported to significantly reduce the defect density in the epitaxial Ge layers. In this process threading dislocations propagating from the Ge/Si interface are terminated at the SiO2 side walls, which results in the formation of a defect-free Ge layer in regions above the critical aspect-ratio thickness. Epitaxial Ge layers grown in 40-nm wide SiO2 trench arrays on Si by UHV CVD were investigated. When the thickness of Ge was less than the height of the SiO2 trenches, the Ge layers grew epitaxially by a selective epitaxial growth (SEG) process without any detectable surface modification, due to the high interfacial energy between the SiO2 mask and Ge. The critical strain required to modify the Ge surface via 3-D island transition (the minimum strain), as a function of the trench width, was calculated. Considering the energies involved in the transition, it was found that uniformly strained Ge layers were energetically more favorable than those with surface undulations as the width of the trench decreased. The strained Ge layers relaxed their energy by forming the defects, such as dislocations at the Ge/Si interfaces and stacking faults. From the strain analyses, the residual strain in the Ge layers was -0.21%. As the thickness of the Ge layers increased, the residual compressive strain in Ge decreased as the result of relaxation. Based on RSM measurements, the in-plane strain value along the direction of the SiO2 trenches was larger than that in the direction perpendicular to the trenches due to asymmetric strain relaxation originating from the oxide walls. The residual strain values along the two directions were also confirmed by nanobeam electron diffraction measurements, in which the average strains were found to be -0.75% for the direction parallel to the trenches and -0.24% for the perpendicular direction, respectively.
Next, I examined the SEG of Ge on Si(001) substrates with 40, 65, and 90 nm width trench arrays. Based on RSM measurements, this strain along the parallel direction increased from -0.28 to -0.72% as the width of the exposed Si substrate between the SiO2 walls decreased from 90 to 40 nm, which was due to a decrease in strain relaxation. I calculated the effect of Si trench width on changes in strain after removing the SiO2 walls and compared the calculated values with the RSM results. No significant change in residual strain was detected along the direction perpendicular to the trenches, and the strain changes were <0.1%. It was verified that the ART technology can be used effectively in fabricating a compressively strained Ge layer, which opens the possibility of producing nano-scaled pMOS logic devices.
I fabricated Ge/Si1-xGex core/shell NWs with different compositions at the shell by changing the gas flow rates of SiH4 and GeH4, and varying a growth temperature. The core/shell NWs were successfully grown through the several steps by low pressure (LP) CVD. First, a diameter of the pure Ge-core wire was controlled by a thickness of Au catalyst layers. When the 5-nm-thick Au layer was used, the average Ge-core diameter was ~80 nm at a growth temperature of 320 °C. In the next step, the gold droplets were etched by using the solution of KI and I2 to deposit the Si1-xGex shell layer on the Ge-core wire. In order to grow the same thickness of the Si1-xGex shells with the different compositions the growth temperature was decreased as the Ge concentration was increased. After the growth the composition of the shells was investigated by grazing incidence x-ray diffraction. From the peak positions of (111), (220), and (113) the lattice constant of Si1-xGex was calculated and the Ge mole fraction x was determined assuming the Vegard’s law. The shape of the nanowires was monitored by scanning electron microscopy. In addition, TEM measurement was performed to analyze the crystal structure of NWs. The crystallographic directions of NWs and their cross-sectional shape were revealed. From the consideration of surface energy minimization the equilibrium shape of the NW was calculated and compared with our findings.
Finally, for the applications to channel layers in 3-D NAND flash memory devices in situ P-doped polycrystalline Si films grown on SiO2 layers using Si3H8 and PH3 as precursors were investigated as a function of the Si3H8/PH3 gas flow ratio and the growth temperature. At a high flow rate for Si3H8 in the temperature range of 600~700 °C, the deposition process was controlled by the rate of desorption of H2 on the surface, which has an activation energy of 1.13 eV. For a low Si3H8 flow rate at growth temperatures >650 °C, however, the deposition was limited by the diffusion of Si3H8 gas to the surface. The presence of P decreased the crystallization temperature of the poly Si layers during growth. In addition, the ratio of P incorporated into the poly Si decreased with increasing growth temperature because of the increase in the growth rate. The resistivity of the P-doped poly Si films decreased with increasing deposition temperature at the same P concentration, indicating that the use of a high growth temperature results in an enhancement in the activation of P in the poly Si films during growth.