쁘렘짠드 단편소설의 경향과 기법 변화에 대한 고찰

이은구(Lee Eungu) 한국인도학회 2003 印度硏究 Vol.8 No.1

달리뜨 문학: 자아 정체성 고백과 사회적 반항 사이에서

이은구(EUNGU LEE) 한국외국어대학교 인도연구소 2021 남아시아연구 Vol.26 No.4

‘달리뜨(Dalit)’라는 말은 ‘짓밟힌 자’라는 뜻으로 인도의 계급 사회에서 억압, 핍박, 착취를 당하며 비참한 삶을 살아가는 불가촉천민을 가리키기 위해 의식적으로 사용하는 현대 용어이다. 달리뜨 공동체는 인도 계급 구조에서 가장 낮은 공동체로 여겨지며, 이들은 풀레와 암베드까르가 달리뜨 공동체의 자각 의식과 대중 의식을 높이기 위해 끊임없이 투쟁하는 동안 상위카스트의 위선, 위계, 폭압, 독점적 지위에 도전하여 집단 투쟁을 벌였다. 1970년대부터 달리뜨들이 문학 주체로서 활동하면서 이들은 삶에서 경험한 불평등과 차별의 현실을 표현하기 시작하였고, 계급, 인종, 계층 또는 직업에 따라 소외된 이들의 고발과 저항의 문학이 달리뜨 문학이라는 이름으로 나타났다. 달리뜨 문학은 불의(不義)에 기반한 기존의 사회 제도를 거부하고 상위 카스트의 악과 위선을 폭로하는 것을 목표로 한다. 이는 억압적인 계급 제도와 그들의 공동 지지자 그리고 고전 학문과 문학으로부터의 문화적 독립 선언이자 분리된 정체성을 위한 달리뜨 공동체의 혁명적인 투쟁 선언이다. 달리뜨 문학 운동은 현대적 맥락에서 새로운 변화와 사회 질서를 창출하기 위해 억압받는 사람들 집단이 주체가 되어 정체성 의식 확립을 시도한 사실적이고 진보적인 문학운동이다. 인도 계급 사회의 폐해와 모순을 고발하고 달리뜨 집단의 자아의식과 정체성을 찾고자 하는 달리뜨 문학이 이제 인도의 주요 언어의 문학 부문으로 성장하였다. 따라서 달리뜨 문학은 이제 주류 문학과는 별도로 삶의 실제 경험을 바탕으로 하는 달리뜨 문학을 위한 미학을 확립해야 할 필요성이 있다. 또한 문학은 주로 경험적 사실에 대한 질문이 아니라 가치에 대한 질문에 관한 것을 다룬다는 점에서 달리뜨 문학이 문학의 본질과 기능을 등한시해서도 안 될 것이다. 정치적 분열에 따라 달리뜨 문학도 큰 주목을 받으며 발전해 왔으며, 21세기에도 더욱 관심이 집중될 것으로 예상되는 만큼 달리뜨 문학은 예술성 추구와 대중성 확보라는 과제를 해결하기 위해 진지한 성찰과 비판적 고찰이 있어야 한다. This article aims to reflect and evaluate Dalit’s literature as a social rebellion. The word ‘Dalit’ means ‘depressed’ and is a modern term consciously used to refer to the ‘untouchables’ who live a miserable life through oppression, persecution, and exploitation in the caste system of India. The Dalit community is considered to be the lowest community in the caste system, and while Phule and Ambedkar constantly struggled to raise Dalit consciousness in the Dalit community, they challenged the hypocrisy, hierarchies, oppression, and monopoly status of the upper castes in a collective struggle. From the 1970s, Dalits began to express the reality of inequality and discrimination experienced in their lives as they acted as literary subjects. They emerged the literature of resistance, that is, the Dalit literature, which accuses the marginalized according to class, race, or profession. Dalit literature aims to reject the existing social system based on injustice and to expose the evil and hypocrisy of the upper caste. It is a declaration of cultural independence from the caste system and their co-supporters and from classical scholarship and literature, and a declaration of the revolutionary struggle of the Dalit community for a separate identity. The Dalit literary movement is a realistic and progressive literary movement in which a group of people who are oppressed to create a new change and social order in the modern context attempted to establish a consciousness of identity as the subject. Dalit literature, which seeks to accuse the abuses and contradictions of the Indian class society and to find the self-consciousness and identity of the Dalit group, has now grown into the literary sector of the main language of India. Therefore, Dalit literature now needs to establish aesthetics for Dalit literature based on real life experiences apart from mainstream literature. In addition, in that literature mainly deals with questions of value, Dalit literature should not be neglected to its essential characteristics and functions. Dalit literature has also attracted great attention and developed according to political divisions, and it is expected that more attention will be focused in the 21st century. Therefore, Dalit literature must have serious reflection and critical consideration in order to solve the task of pursuing artistry and securing popularity.

영령(英領) 인도에서의 힌디-우르두어 분쟁: 힌두-무슬림의 분리된 정체성의 발상

이은구(EUNGU LEE) 한국외국어대학교 인도연구소 2020 남아시아연구 Vol.25 No.4

이 논문은 영령 인도에서 힌디어와 우르두어가 같은 방언에서 각기 다른 언어로 분화되어 출현하는 원인과 과정을 언어 민족주의 측면에서 고찰하는 것을 목표로 한다. 이 논문의 내용은 언어 민족주의의 맥락에서, 언어가 동질적인 정체성 형성에 중요한 요소로 작용함으로써, 힌두스따니어가 힌두의 공동체주의와 무슬림의 이슬람 문화의 상징으로서 힌디어와 우르두어로 분기(分岐) 발전하는 과정을 살펴보는 것이다. 힌디어와 우르두어는 시기와 지역에 따라 여러 이름으로 불렸을 따름이며, 역사적, 구조적으로 동일한 언어로 여겨져 평화로운 공생관계를 유지해 왔다. 힌디-우르두어 논쟁이 본격화되기 시작한 것은 영령 인도 시대부터이다. 그리고 이들 언어가 분리되게 된 가장 중요한 원인은 영국 식민통치 기간의 식민통치 정책에 따른 교육 및 언어 정책에서 야기된 언어 민족주의에 기인한다. 힌두와 무슬림 공동체의 배타적, 폐쇄적, 분리적 그리고 집단적 발상은 두 집단 간에 정체성 충돌을 빚었다. 힌두들은 인도에서 힌디어의 근원을 찾아 가능한 한 우르두어로부터 힌디어를 분리하려고 노력했다. 그리고 무슬림은 언어를 이슬람 문화의 상징으로 여겨 자신들의 정체성을 확보하려고 애썼다. 그리하여 힌디-우르두어에 대한 논쟁은 언어적 정체성에서 비롯되어 종교적 또는 민족주의적 정체성으로 확산되어 옮겨갔다. 그러므로 언어가 이들 양 집단이 문화적 정체성을 드러내는 가장 대표적인 상징으로 작용한 점을 고려해야 한다. 동시에 힌디-우르두어 논쟁은 공동체의 정체성 측면에서, 힌디어-힌두, 우르두어-무슬림 관계와 같은 사회적, 정치적 구조의 큰 틀에서 이해해야 한다. The paper aims to examine the causes and processes of Hindi and Urdu in the British India, which diverge into different languages in the same dialect, in terms of linguistic nationalism. The content of this paper is to look at the development of Hindi and Urdu languages as symbols of Hindu communalism and Muslim Islamic culture, by language acting as an important factor in the formation of homogeneous identity, in the context of linguistic nationalism. Hindi and Urdu have been called by different names depending on the time of year and region. They have been regarded as historically and structurally identical, maintaining peaceful symbiosis. The Hindi-Urdu controversy began to take off in earnest from the time of British India. And the most important reason for their separation was due to linguistic nationalism arising from education and language policy under the colonial rule of the British colonial period. The exclusive, closed, segregated and collective ideas of the Hindu and Muslim communities led to identity conflicts between the two groups. Hindus tried to find the source of Hindi in India and try to separate it from Urdu as much as possible. Muslims tried to secure their identity by considering language as a symbol of Islamic culture. Thus, the Hindi-Urdu controversy spread from linguistic identity to religious or nationalist identity. It is therefore important to note that language has served as the most representative symbol of both groups’ cultural identity. At the same time, the Hindi-Urdu controversy must be understood in terms of community identity, in large frameworks of social and political structures such as Hindi-Hindu and Urdu-Muslim relations.

『눈먼 시대 Andhā Yuga』: 전쟁, 파멸, 재생의 신화 창조

이은구(Lee, Eungu) 한국외국어대학교 외국문학연구소 2015 외국문학연구 Vol.- No.57

The purpose of this paper is to examine an intention to overcome the contemporary uncertainty of individual, the fear of death, irrational conditions in the drama 『Andh? Yuga』. 『Andh? Yuga』 is a masterpiece of the Dharamav?ra Bh?rat?’s that combined traditional western drama to the old Indian drama in harmony. This literary work dramatized the Indian epic Mah?bh?rata’s materials, events and characters. Materials, events and characters from the Indian epic Mah?bh?rata’s were dramatized in this masterpiece. By the way, the story is very similar with the state of a period that India fights a war against Pakistan in the process of separation and independence after World War II. The author puts emphasis that the period of Mah?bh?rata’s era and 1950’s are quite the same in respect of destruction, chaos and loss. Therefore, this literary work comes out from the introspecting and criticism of the frustrated state of a period. To the author, the violence and war which give him a substantial wound was desperate problems. Thus, through the drama, he describes the wound that war triggered while critically introspects the ethical problem and human desire that incur domestic discord tragedy originated from the war. Bharati warns about fear and dangerousness of cruel war and at the same time stresses that human can protect and preserve them from the abominable hand which is called blindness unless they adhere the values of human nature under any circumstances.

소설과 영화 「체스 광(狂) Śatraṅj ke KhilāRī」의 비교 연구

이은구(Lee, Eungu) 한국외국어대학교 외국문학연구소 2013 외국문학연구 Vol.- No.49

This paper compares Premchand’s original novel “The Chess Players” which reflecting broad perspective about social reality with Satyajit Rays adapted movie <The Chess Players> and tries to analysis it profoundly. One of the masterpieces of Premchand short stories, “The Chess Players” has been under the spotlight constantly and in 1977 same titled movie was made by prominent film director Satyajit Ray. This historical novel, which was published 20 years before independence from British, gives unconventional views and implications to readers and audiences by filming 30 years after independence. Ray’s adapted movie, <The Chess Players>, provides an opportunity to evaluate Premchand’s original novel from a different view and multifaceted ways. The main story of the adaptive movie almost coincided with the original movie, but during the adaptation process backgrounds, characters and events etc. are added, deleted or transformed. Furthermore, there are many alternations in plots because of differences between movie and novel, differences of the sense of values of the writer and adapter and changed situation. Both novel and movie are not off the point with recognition of the phases of the times and inspiration of national consciousness. According to the peculiarity of the medium of expression, novel derives a critical mind of current ruling classes’ structure of consciousness by metaphorical and satirical depiction of Mirja and Mir. On the other hand, movie fully reflects the historical meaning of Lucknow and Awadh’s annexation and its objective facts with historical research. Therefore, Premchand inspires national consciousness and emphasizes recognition of the phases of the times by ridiculing two chess manias with metaphorical and satirical depiction.

쁘렘짠드의 소설 「이드가흐」 Īdgāh

이은구(Lee, Eungu) 한국외국어대학교 외국문학연구소 2017 외국문학연구 Vol.- No.65

This paper analyzes how Premchand tries to obliterate prejudice and misconceptions about Muslims by Hindus in his story Idgah. The inner world of the contemporary religious Muslims and the religious conviction and perspective of the author can be recognized by looking at Premchand’s writing from 1910s to the 1936. In this paper, the communication and sympathy based on the humanism of the Muslim characters of the short story Idgah, the socio-religious ethics inherent in a mentality of sacrifice, the humane emotions of love and compassion and the cognition of Muslims about the Islamic community are considered analytically. This paper methodically goes through the livelihood and the world view of ordinary Muslims trying to follow Islamic culture and investigates thoroughly the efforts of Premchand, who has observed Muslim society and admitted its value to India objectively, to pursue religious harmony and coexistence. He depicts the sympathy and human love of Muslims and advocates reconciliation and peaceful coexistence between Muslims and Hindus.

쁘렘짠드와 현진건 소설의 민족의식 고찰

이은구(Lee, Eungu) 한국외국어대학교 외국문학연구소 2016 외국문학연구 Vol.- No.61

The purpose of this article is to explore meaning of contemporary life and self-identity found in 「Yah Merī Mātṛibhūmi Hai」 by realist Hindi writer, Premchand, and 「Hometown」 by Korean realist writer Jin-Keon Hyun by reviewing perception of ‘home-town’ in these two short stories. In other words, this article is to demonstrate how hometown as a theme is related to main characters’ process of discovering reality of society, self-consciousness and national identity through inner conflict. These short stories show similar characteristics; both stories utilize realism to describe national tragedy and horrors during the colonial period. Also, these two both contain similar motif, emotions and feelings regarding a hometown, method of narration, and consciousness of the writer that supports national awareness. Therefore, examining the similarities and differences of the theme, using parallel comparison, can be important ways to understand the world literature. In these stories, modern intellectual I describe story during the travel by using first person point of a view, moreover, they established the place, hometown, to make the symbolic image of the nation as a background at the foreign colonization time. Their hometown became impoverished because of inhumanity of modern civilization, violence of imperialism and destruction of humanity due to capitalism. This symbolically shows dark sides and negative elements which are results of colonization. During the colonization time, the loss of the hometown means the loss of the national identity with the collapsing of the traditional value. These stories, using homesick and loss of the hometown as an motif, embodied the national hardship and pain drawing conflict between real life and self-consciousness.