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미국-스페인전쟁과 미디어의 풍자 이미지에 나타난 팽창주의, 반(反)제국주의
석화정(Seok, Hua-jeong) 국방부 군사편찬연구소 2016 군사 Vol.- No.98
The American-Spanish War of 1898, was initiated for the United States to step to rescue Cuba from the oppression from Spain, ended just months later with the U.S. acquisition of Spain’s remaining empire, including Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines. Patriotic media played a significant role in breaking out the war, identifying the key territories to be acquired prior to a deployment of military operations. Even though there were various shades of high-circulation “yellow” journalism, this article mainly focuses on the ‘unexplored’ press media by the including political cartoons, headlines, caption texts from newspapers in both rural and urban settings across the U.S. It elaborates to show how the nation’s patriotic media campaigns mainly by cartoonists and editorialists captured the public’s interest in the Cuban crisis, and to portray the U.S actions for the duration of the conflict, from liberation to conquest, and further to press the U.S acquisition new territories abroad. After the war, growing resistance to American expansionism was found expression in the media, but it was driven the consensus in terms of expansion costs, not by a moral compass as will be identified at the platform of Anti-Imperialist League of 1899.
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청일전쟁 전황(戰況)과 ‘조선의 독립’ 문제에 대한 열강의 정책
석화정(Seok, Hua-Jeong) 국방부 군사편찬연구소 2017 군사 Vol.- No.102
The study focuses on the ‘independent issue of Corea and the international relations under the situations of the Sino-Japanese War. During the War, ‘the independence of Corea’, regardless of sovereignty and territorial integrity as an independent nation, was under the restrictions of the structure of strategic interest for the Great Powers including Japan and China. Japan’s exclusive ambition over the Korean Peninsula, which pretended to be ‘independence of Corea’, consistently revealed during the war period. China, on the other hand, wanted to prevent the Korean Peninsula from the falling into the hands of the Japanese as a whole, leaning on the intervention of the Powers. The ambiguous attitudes of China between ‘independence of Corea’ and suzerainty were one of the major factors in prolonging the war and delaying the peace negotiations. Of the Powers with concerns in East Asia, the United States hoped to use Japan to terminate China’s suzerainty over Corea, open the door to Chinese trade and investment and weaken the influence of Britain and Russia in East Asia. Britain and Russia also checked each other because the partner country might try to expand its power alone in the Korean Peninsula. British Lord Kimberley’s ‘common intervention’ by the powers was a way to prevent Russian monopoly on the Korean Peninsula, and to avoid ‘armed intervention’. His proposals of ‘joint occupation of Corea’ and ‘separate Protection’ by China and Japan came from a large frame to control Russia, but as a result, it became a guideline to Japan to open the war. Since the beginning of October in 1894, when the war spread to mainland China, Kimberley’s proposal, ‘independence of Corea guaranteed by the Powers’, was intended to exclude any power’s monopolies on the Korean peninsula including victorious Japan. Russia also hoped to prevent the subjugation of Corea by any power and adopt a wait-and-see policy at least until the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway. But as soon as Japan’s crucial victory threatened the ‘independence of Corea and of China’, Russia will be involved actively the issue through the Triple Intervention in April 1895.
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석화정(Seok, Hua-jeong) 국방부 군사편찬연구소 2014 군사 Vol.- No.92
The third secret treaty which Russia and Japan signed on July 8, 1912 maximized their imperial interests in East Asia. and precisely defined their boundaries in Mongolia compared to the previous Treaty of 1907. After the secret agreement with Japan, Russian government readily made Mongolia as a buffer area against China through Russo-Mongolian Treaty in 1912 and the Declaration and Exchange of Notes by Russia and China in 1913. ‘Autonomous Mongolia’ under the suzerainty of China was ratified in 1915 at the Tripartite Treaty of Kiakhta by Mongolia, Russia, and China. In reality, Russia had assumed that China would played a role in acting as the guarantor of Outer Mongolian autonomy. Inner Mongolia, however, lost its local autonomy forever. Mongolia might think that it cleverly was making use of China and Russia to advance its own interests, but it was evident that these two big powers in the early twentieth century had their own agendas for holding their private negotiations on Mongolia’s sovereignty. In short, the Russo-Japanese Secret Treaty and the Russo-Chinese cooperation as their outcome, served to deny Mongolian independence and sovereignty. As the pawn of imperialistic geopolitics, Mongolia had to bear the result of the Russian-Japanese-Chinese conspiracy and cooperation over its independence and sovereignty and try to barely survived on the edge of the balance of power.
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石和靜(Seok Hua-jeong) 역사학회 2004 역사학보 Vol.0 No.184
The annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910 is a reflection of the result of Japan's victory and a sign of the international climate after the Russo-Japanese war. From 1905 to 1910 Japan tried to influence the Great Power's imperial ambitions in East Asia in order to acquire their approval for the annexation of Korea. Nevertheless, the understanding of how Japan decided the timing of transforming Korea from a protectorate to a colony in an international context has been largely neglected by researchers. The Russo-Japanese agreements were partially accountable for the Japanese seizure of Korea. This especially affected the timing. The Russo￢Japanese convention of 1907, which completed the 'diplomatic revolution', opened the way to the collective antagonism of the Triple Entente against the Triple Alliance and gave Japan undisputed control over Korea. Although there was no statement on the Korean problem, the Russo-Japanese accord of 1910, which was another give-and-take deal in Manchurian area, immediately resulted in the Japanese annexation. This study traces the Russo-Japanese negotiations to their vital mutual interests and attempts to explain the momentum and the process of the annexation of Korea by Japan as a result of war.
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풍자 이미지를 통한 1898년의 재구성 -인종주의 너머 힘의 정치로-
석화정 ( Hua Jeong Seok ) 한국서양사학회 2015 西洋史論 Vol.0 No.126
The study is to reexamine the historical hypothesis that the year 1898 was the climax of the popular enthusiasm for imperialism. A comprehensive understanding of the year 1898, in this paper, requires an analysis of metaphor, symbols, colonial policy, and their interrelationships in political cartoons of the media. Cartoonists have used multiple approaches to express their expansionist opinions about the national entities: archetypes of the other that demean the colony or the enemy(such as non- or sub-human creatures, skin colors, gender); those that ridicule and deride the colony(such as children, devils, the handicapped); those that glorify the national prestige. American-Spanish War- expressed in the imagery of cartoons in which the United States first projected itself as an empire to take colonies from the Caribbean to the Pacific and Asia-was uniquely suitable to the use of metaphors. The anti-imperialists, on the other hand, squared off against the pro-war and expansionist jingoes in public discourse, but their impact was limited; the discourse on biological race did not appeared in editorial cartoon metaphors. Pictorial fusion images of ideologies of race and empire on national stereotypes serve to delineate a larger debate about metaphor and purpose of foreign policy in world affairs. Analysis shows that caricaturing the national symbols were influenced by power politics struggles among national entities, not just by the race-based thinking. Visual images of the media in 1898 illuminate that there were in the public the fever of expansionist discourses on race, ideologies, and also more or less anti-imperialist humanitarianism, but most of all, imperialist superpower’s politics had an overwhelming support domestically and overseas. (Republic of Korea Air Force Academy / hjsveta@hanmail.net)
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