난징대학살의 영화적 재현 연구 = Cinematic Representation of the NanjingMassacre

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

In 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out. Japanese Army
invaded Nanjing, the capital city of China back then, and occupied the
whole city in just thirteen days. As soon as entering the old castle
city, Japanese Army began an annihilation operation. They
slaughtered not only a lot of captive Chinese soldiers but a number
of innocent civilians, whether young or old, men or women. Also they
raped numerous Chinese women, whether young or old, pregnant or
not. Studies suggested that 200,000~300,000 Chinese people had been
slaughtered and 20,000~80,000 Chinese women had been raped during
the occupation of Japanese Army from December 1937 to January
1938, which is just about 6 weeks. It is called the Nanjing(Nanking)
Massacre. The victims of the massacre mostly were burned or
dumped to river or buried.
Nanjing Massacre is called one of the worst war crime in 20th
century. But after the Second Sino-Japanese War was over, the hegemony around China and the politics of East Asia have rapidly
changed. Both of the newly-born Chinese government and the
defeated Japanese government did not eagerly want to deal with the
Nanjing Massacre. But in early 1980s, just as Japan government tried
to distort the mid-20th century’s history among Japan and other East
Asian countries, the issue of the Nanjing Massacre was unwillingly
recalled to the contemporary history. Beijing outraged on the Japanese
government’s history distortion attempt. Chinese government, ruled by
Supreme leader Deng Xiao-ping, swiftly decided to build a memorial
hall in Nanjing and put the Nanjing Massacre on school textbooks.
At the moment, a number of documentaries covering the Nanjing
Massacre released. And in 1987, the first feature film about the
Nanjing massacre were produced in China and released to the public.
In 1990s, Iris Chang, a Chinese-American journalist, has privately
covered the Nanjing Massacre and published a book titled The rape
of Nanking. The book of Chang’s has sparkled global interests on the
Nanjing massacre and put the issue on one of the hottest episode in
the 20th century.
This doctoral thesis fully aimed at the Nanjing Massacre. Since
1987, nine films dealing with the Nanjing Massacre have been
produced through the world. Seven of them are from Greater China
and two are from non-Chinese countries. Analysing the nine films
with the methods of cinematic semiology, it tried to suggest how the
films represented the Nanjing Massacre and how the tragic history
was remembered by audience. Additionally, it tried to suggest how
the Nanjing Massacre was happened and progressed and evaluated in the perspective of history studies.
It concluded that the Nanjing Massacre is an outcome of highly
intended operation by the Japanese Army during the Second
Sino-Japanese War that aimed at the Chinese people with massive
slaughter and brutal rape. But with regret the reality was uncovered
for a long time and is still controlled by political hegemonies.
Analysing films showed that the early Chinese films focused the
victims and damages at large, but the films released afterwards
gradually proceeded to deal with the topic of patriotic nationalism.
And almost every films have represented the great ‘subaltern’ - the
subjugated class – who volunteerly defended themselves, helped each
other, sacrificed for neighbors against all odds without any help
from the Chinese government. Above all, the films showed the
collapse of the Chinese patriarchy and the return the great and
primitive maternalism of the Chinese people.

국문 초록 (Abstract)

1937년 중국과 일본 간 전쟁이 발발하였다. 일본군은 당시 중국의 수
도 난징(南京)을 침공해 점령하고 포로로 잡힌 군인과 민간인을 무차별
학살하고 나이를 가리지 않고 여성을 성폭행하였다. 이로써 20~30만 명
의 인명이 학살되고 2~8만 명의 여성이 성폭행을 당하였다. 이를 난징대
학살(Nanjing Massacre, 南京大屠殺)이라 부른다. 난징대학살은 단일 사
안으로는 20세기 최악의 사건 중 하나로 기록될 사안이다.
그러나 전쟁이 끝난 뒤 중국의 정치 헤게모니가 급변하고 동아시아 정
세가 변화하면서 가해자인 일본과 피해자인 중국 모두 오랫동안 관심을
가지지 않았다. 1980년대 일본 정부의 역사 교과서 왜곡 파문이 일어나
면서 난징대학살은 다시 역사의 현장으로 소환된다. 중국 정부는 난징대
학살의 비극을 적극 조명하기로 하고 기념관을 세우고 교과서에 게재하
는 한편 연구를 본격화하였다. 난징대학살을 소재로 한 다큐멘터리에 이
어 최초의 극영화도 이때 제작돼 상영되었다. 1990년대 중국계 미국인
아이리스 장은 개인적인 취재를 통해 책을 발간하여 난징에서 일어난 일
본군의 대학살과 여성들에 대한 강간을 전 세계에 고발하였다. 당시 난
징에서 안전구를 설립해 많은 인명을 구조한 욘 라베의 일기도 반세기
만에 공개되었다. 이에 따라 난징대학살은 중일간의 문제에서 전 세계적
인 이슈로 확대되었다. 이후 난징대학살을 소재로 한 극영화가 다수 제
작되었다.
이 논문은 20세기 최악의 참사 중 하나인 난징대학살을 소재로 한 극
영화를 영화기호학을 통해 분석함으로써 난징대학살이라는 역사적 사실이 어떻게 재현되고 그로 인해 어떻게 기억되는가를 제시하고자 하였다.
이를 위해 먼저 난징대학살의 발생과 경과, 평가에 대한 사적(史的) 연구
를 실시하여 역사적 관점에서 재정리하였다. 이어 난징대학살을 소재로
한 영화 9편에 대한 서사분석을 실시하여 인물과 서사구조를 파악하였
다. 서사분석은 통합체 분석과 계열체 분석, 행위주 모델 분석으로 이루
어졌다. 서사분석에 이어 난징대학살 소재 영화에 대한 담론분석을 실시
하여 영화의 주제와 심층의 의미 그리고 그 의미들의 관계를 분석하였
다.
사적 연구의 결과, 난징대학살에 대한 진상이 재정립되었다. 난징대학
살은 중일전쟁 중 일어난 만행이었으나 정치적 이해관계로 인해 오랫동
안 진상이 가려져 왔다. 난징대학살은 중국의 영웅주의에 입각한 승리사
관에 부합되지 않았고, 중일수교에도 좋지 않은 영향을 줄 수 있었기 때
문이다. 그러나 1980년대 들어 일본이 역사교과서 왜곡을 시도하면서 중
국은 난징대학살을 항일전쟁사의 치부에서 중국 민중이 기억해야 할 역
사로 전환하여 국가적으로 기념하기 시작하였다. 2000년대 들어 한발 물
러선 모습을 보이기도 하였으나 중국 정부는 여전히 난징대학살을 애국
주의와 민족주의적 역사 자원으로 삼아 기념하고 있다.
난징대학살을 소재로 한 영화에 대한 서사분석에서는 중화권 영화 7편
과 비 중화권 영화 2편 등 모두 9편의 영화를 분석하였다. 전체 영화를
통틀어 ‘일본군의 폭력’과 ‘중국인의 생존’이라는 이항이 대립됨을 파악하
였다. 또 영화 전체를 관통하는 주된 서사는 ‘일본군이 난징을 침공하여
무자비한 학살과 강간을 자행하고 이에 대해 중국사회와 서구사회는 생
존을 위해 투쟁하고 저항한다’는 내용으로 수렴되었다. 행위주 모델 분석
을 통해서는 9편 전체에서 주체들(주인공들)이 자신의 생존과 안전보다
가족 또는 공공을 대상으로 삼아 그들의 안녕과 구조를 추구하였음이 드
러났다.
난징대학살 소재 영화에 대한 담론분석에서는 유의미한 결과가 도출되
었다. 중화권의 초기 영화에서는 일본군의 잔인한 폭력과 중국인들의 막
대한 피해가 주로 재현되었지만, 점차 이를 극복한 애국적 민족주의로
내용이 변화하였음을 확인하였다. 또, 비 중화권 영화를 포함한 난징대학
살 소재 영화 전편에서 역사에서 주목받지 못하였던 인물들 즉 서발턴
(subaltern)의 활약을 확인하였다. 영화에는 전쟁고아와 승려, 하급 군인,기녀, 여학생 등 다양한 서발턴이 등장해 생생하고 독특한 서사를 제공
하였다. 중국 정부와 엘리트계층이 난징을 떠나거나 제 몫을 하지 못한
가운데 서발턴은 스스로 지키고 돕고 희생하였다. 난징대학살이라는 극
한상황에서 서발턴은 역사의 작인(agent)으로 호명(appellation)되었던 것
이다. 이와 함께 전체 영화를 통틀어 중국의 가부장제의 위기와 극한의
위기 상황에서 모성(母性)으로 회귀하려는 의도가 강하게 읽혀졌다. 가부
장제의 위기는 중국이 봉건사회에서 근대국가로 전환하기 위한 통과의례
가 되지만 난징대학살에서 극단적인 형태로 나타났다. 난징대학살로 남
성들이 부재한 상황이 발생하였는데 이는 가부장제의 위기로 이어진다.
이때 생존을 위한 중국인의 노력은 모성회귀로 나아갔다. 모성의 재현은
정주하거나 회귀해야 할 심리적 공간으로 여성뿐 아니라 패잔병과 승려
와 같은 남성성을 잃어버린 남성들에게도 찾아볼 수 있었다. 이와 같은
강력한 모성과 여성화된 남성들은 서발턴과 민족주의와 결합하여 보다
강력해졌고, 그들은 더 이상 인습에 얽매이지 않고 능동적이고 주체적으
로 미래를 열어가는 동력이 되었다. 이에 따라 영화의 결말도 수많은 사
람들의 죽음 속에서도 여학생과 어린이의 생존을 추구하는 미래지향적인
결말이 대세를 이루었음을 확인하였다.

목차 (Table of Contents)

• 제1장 서론 ··········································································································1
• 제2장 역사 서술과 영화적 재현 ································································3
• 1. 역사는 어떻게 기억되는가? ·····································································3
• 2. 영화는 어떻게 역사를 서술하는가? ·······················································6
• 3. 영화는 어떻게 해독되는가? ··································································13
• 제3장 중화권 영화의 역사 재현 ······························································23
• 1. 영화의 도입 시기부터 개혁개방 초기까지의 중국영화 ···················23
• 2. 개혁개방 이후의 중국영화 ·····································································28
• 3. 홍콩영화와 대만영화의 변천 ·································································35
• 제4장 선행연구 검토 - 난징대학살에 관한 역사학과 영화 ············41
• 1. 난징대학살에 대한 사적(史的) 연구의 추이 ····································· 41
• 2. 난징대학살 소재 영화 연구 경향 ·························································45
• 제5장 연구문제 및 연구방법 ·····································································54
• 1. 연구문제 ·····································································································54
• 2. 연구방법 ·····································································································55
• 1) 사적(史的) 연구방법 ···········································································55
• 2) 영화기호학적 연구방법 ······································································56
• (1) 통합체 분석 ····················································································57
• (2) 계열체 분석 ····················································································57
• (3) 행위주 모델 분석 ··········································································59
• (4) 담론 분석 ························································································60
• 제6장 난징대학살의 역사적 서술 ····························································63
• 1. 중일전쟁의 역사적 경과 ·········································································63
• 1) 중일전쟁의 발발 ··················································································63
• 2) 중일전쟁의 초기 전개 – 화북(華北)전투 ·····································66
• 3) 중일전쟁의 초기 전개 – 상하이(上海)전투또는화동(華東)전투 ······ 69
• 4) 중일전쟁 발발이 한국에 미친 영향 ················································71
• 2. 난징대학살의 실체와 사적(史的) 기록 ···············································75
• 1) ‘민국시대’의 수도 난징 ······································································75
• 2) 난징전투 ································································································78
• 3) 난징대학살 ····························································································84
• 3. 난징대학살의 기억학 ···············································································90
• 1) 중국 개혁개방 이전의 ‘난징대학살’에 대한 역사적 인식 ·········· 90
• (1) 종전과 전범재판 ············································································90
• (2) 국공내전과 신정부의 수립 ··························································92
• 2) 중국 개혁개방 이후의 ‘난징대학살’에 대한 역사적 평가 ········ 101
• (1) 일본의 역사교과서 왜곡과 난징대학살 ·····································101
• (2) 일본의 역사교과서 왜곡과 일본 학술계의 난징대학살 논쟁·· 104
• (3) 아이리스 장과 욘 라베의 개인적 기억 ·································· 106
• 제7장 난징대학살에 대한 영화적 역사 서술 – 서사분석 ············· 111
• 1. <도성혈증> (1987) ················································································112
• 1) 작품개요와 줄거리 ············································································112
• 2) 통합체 분석 ························································································115
• 3) 계열체 분석 ························································································118
• 4) 행위주 모델 분석 ··············································································119
• 2. <흑태양-난징대학살> (1995) ·····························································121
• 1) 작품개요와 줄거리 ············································································121
• 2) 통합체 분석 ························································································124
• 3) 계열체 분석 ························································································126
• 4) 행위주 모델 분석 ··············································································128
• 3. <난징1937> (1995) ················································································129
• 1) 작품개요와 줄거리 ··········································································129
• 2) 통합체 분석 ························································································132
• 3) 계열체 분석 ························································································135
• 4) 행위주 모델 분석 ··············································································136
• 4. <오월 팔월> (2002) ··············································································137
• 1) 작품개요와 줄거리 ············································································137
• 2) 통합체 분석 ························································································140
• 3) 계열체 분석 ························································································142
• 4) 행위주 모델 분석 ··············································································144
• 5. <치샤사1937> (2004) ············································································145
• 1) 작품개요와 줄거리 ············································································145
• 2) 통합체 분석 ························································································148
• 3) 계열체 분석 ························································································151
• 4) 행위주 모델 분석 ··············································································153
• 6. <황시> (2008) ························································································155
• 1) 작품개요와 줄거리 ············································································155
• 2) 통합체 분석 ························································································159
• 3) 계열체 분석 ························································································162
• 4) 행위주 모델 분석 ··············································································164
• 7. <존 라베-난징대학살> (2009) ···························································165
• 1) 작품개요와 줄거리 ············································································165
• 2) 통합체 분석 ························································································169
• 3) 계열체 분석 ························································································173
• 4) 행위주 모델 분석 ··············································································175
• 8. <난징!난징!> (2009) ·············································································176
• 1) 작품개요와 줄거리 ············································································176
• 2) 통합체 분석 ························································································180
• 3) 계열체 분석 ························································································185
• 4) 행위주 모델 분석 ··············································································187
• 9. <진링의 13소녀> (2011) ······································································189
• 1) 작품개요와 줄거리 ············································································189
• 2) 통합체 분석 ························································································193
• 3) 계열체 분석 ························································································199
• 4) 행위주 모델 분석 ··············································································200
• 10. 서사분석 종합 ·······················································································203
• 1) 작품개요 종합 ····················································································203
• 2) 통합체 분석 종합 ··············································································204
• 3) 계열체 분석 종합 ··············································································204
• 4) 행위주 모델 분석 종합 ····································································205
• 제8장 난징대학살에 대한 영화적 역사 서술 – 담론분석 ············· 208
• 1. 고발과 민족주의적 역사 재현 ·····························································210
• 1) 피해 서사에서 극복 서사로의 전이 ··············································211
• 2) 민족주의적 서사의 기입 ··································································220
• 2. 역사적 작인(作人)으로서의 서발턴 ···················································223
• 1) 중국의 부재 ························································································224
• 2) 서발턴 서사의 강화 ··········································································226
• 3) 오리엔탈리즘적 시선과 서발턴 서사의 교차 ······························232
• 3. 가부장의 부재와 모성회귀 ···································································239
• 1) 가부장제의 위기 ················································································239
• 2) 모성 회귀 ····························································································243
• 제9장 결론 : 역사와 영화의 마주보기 ················································251
• 참고문헌 ········································································································257
• 영문초록 ········································································································262

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