高麗前期 佛敎石造美術 硏究 = A Study of Buddhist Stone Art in the Early Goryeo period

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

The Goryeo Period is largely divided into three, early, middle, and last, phases according to the transmission of the traditional cultural heritage and the influence of foreign cultures. The first phase, ranging from the foundation of the dynasty to the mid-11th century, is marked by a strong awareness of traditional culture based on a fusion of Buddhism, Confucianism, and traditional ideologies. As for the Buddhist stone art, the phase is characterized by transmission and transformation of the styles developed during the Unified Silla Period. The middle phase ranges from 1071 when Goryeo restored diplomatic relationship with Song to 1270 when the dynasty moved the government back to its capital Gaegyeong following the end of the resistance against Mongol forces. It was during this phase that cultures of Liao and Song were imported to Goryeo on a great scale, promoting universal, international features in Goryeo art, and resulting in the production of works reflecting a strong influence from the styles of Liao, Song, and Jin. Finally, the last phase started with the return of the government to Gaegyeong and ended with the fall of the dynasty.
This study aims at a comprehensive understanding of the styles of Buddhist stone art of early Goryeo through a close review of the remaining works and the background of such styles. Firstly, the main discussion focuses on how the style of early Goryeo accepted the tradition of the Unified Silla's Buddhist stone artand how it changed in the following period. It also includes a discussion about how the traditional Buddhist stone art spread all over Goryeo. Secondly, the discussion also aims at a systematic overview of the process in which the new style of Buddhist stone art reflecting the energy of the newly launched Goryeo Dynasty was formed, developed and declined. There are discussions about the ideas of the conventional style, a subject studied little in existing researches, and finally background of the emergence of the new style in the Buddhist stone art in the early Goryeo Period.
Characteristic features of the Buddhist stone art in the early Goryeo Period can be summarized as follows: Firstly, the new style appeared not only in the areas of Silla in the pre-unification period and the area surrounding the Goryeo capital Gaegyeong but spread to the rest of the nation where it was often combined with distinctive local features. The new style in the early 10th century, for example, reflected stability and balance which characterized the stone art of Unified Silla. The works in the late 10th century, those produced after the reign of King Gwangjong (r. 949-975) in particular, tended to be grandeur and, finally, those after the 11th century became slender and more delicate.
Secondly, the new style of the Goryeo's Buddhist stone art revealed its first appearance through the works made for Gaetaesa Temple established to commemorate the unification of the Later Three Kingdoms by Wang Geon, the founder and first ruler of Goryeo. The works of the Buddhist stone art displayed at the temple exerted a strong influence upon those of the 10th century exhibiting grand, grotesque pillar-like forms and then those of the 11th century marked by slender shapes and small sizes. Grotesqueness reached its zenith in the works made during the reign of King Gwangjong as represented by the image of a bodhisattva wearing an imperial bejeweled crown reflecting the idea that bodhisattvas are emperors (今上皇帝意識皇帝卽菩薩思想). The grandness of the stone works in this period tended to be dwindled after the 11th century probably because the Goryeo rulers' awareness of their imperial title had faded after King Gwangjong.
Thirdly, the conventional style formed via imitating the Buddhist art in the Three Kingdoms Period showed a tendency to revive the pagodas and Buddha statues made by Goguryeo and Baekje artists. The effort to revive the stone pagodas of Goguryeo seems to be closely related with the intention of the Goryeo rulers to make it clear that their dynasty was the legitimate successor of Goguryeo. A lack of remaining pagodas of Goguryeo led Goryeo artists to study the ruined wooden pagoda sites of Goguryeo to create the octagonal stone pagodas. Considering their similarity of style with the three-story stone pagoda of Heungguksa Temple built in 1021, these multi-storied octagonal pagodas in Pyeongyang and its vicinity are believed to have been built during the early 11th century. The new pagodas built in Pyeongyang by Goryeo to officially announce their position as the legitimate heir to Goguryeo continued to exert their influence to the Buddhist stone monuments built in the late Goryeo, and even early Joseon Periods.
As for the style of the stone works of Buddhist art developed in Baekje, fine examples are provided by not only pagodas but Buddha images built in the capitals and main local administrative centers of Baekje such as Buyeo, Gongju, Jeongeup and Namwon. The conventional style of Baekje stone art was later combined with the new style of Goryeo to exhibit grand forms. The prosperity of the Baekje style in this period is often related with the effort to revive Baekje by Gyeon Hwon, the founder and Later Baekje. The influence of the Baekje's traditional style upon the Buddhist art of Later Baekje was, however, limited probably because Gyeon Hwon's attachment to his birthplace in today's Gyeongbuk and admiration for Silla culture led stone art in the Gyeongbuk area exert a stronger influence. The popular sentiment toward old Baekje boosted during the Later Baekje Period continued, however, to the Goryeo Period, resulting in the revival of the Baekje style in the Buddhist stone art of early Goryeo.
Fourthly, Buddhist stone art of the early Goryeo Period was marked by the appearance of a new style supported by the royal family and the tendency towards revival of traditional styles supported by the organizations of local Buddhist followers. These local Buddhists shared the same historical and cultural heritage, and hence could exert a stronger influence on the trend to imitate or revive the aesthetic achievements made during the Three Kingdoms Period. It seems that the active participation of local artisans also helped boost the continued effort for the preservation and revival of the styles of Buddhist stone art established in the earlier period.
Finally, the Buddhist art of the early Goryeo Period was also greatly influenced by the aspirations of local communities who wanted to protect their community by providing a complement to the supernatural energies of the lands and waters in and around it. The tendency is believed to have been closely connected with the philosophy of an eminent Buddhist monk named Doseon who supported a close connection between the Buddhist monuments, temple buildings, pagodas, and Buddhist statues, and the geographical features of the surrounding area.
This study is expected to help have a systematic overview to the styles of the Buddhist stone art developed during the early Goryeo period and to the influences exerted upon each other and characteristic features representing each period of Buddhist stone art. It is also expected to guide readers to the style of Baekje Buddhist art of which relatively little is known so far as this study contains detailed examples to capture its characteristic features. Finally, the study paid closer attention to the various aspects of the Buddhist stone art appeared and spread during the early Goryeo Period, and the expansion and changes brought to the Buddhist worshipers and artisans of the period, and the influence of the feng shui philosophy upon the safety of a nation.

목차 (Table of Contents)

• Ⅰ. 머리말 = 1
• 1. 연구 성과와 목적 = 1
• 2. 연구 방법과 내용 = 6
• Ⅱ. 高麗前期 佛敎石造美術의 現況 = 9
• 1. 시기구분 = 9
• 2. 분포 양상과 성격 = 13
• Ⅲ. 傳統樣式의 繼承과 展開 = 23
• 1. 통일신라 말 불교석조미술의 양상 = 23
• 1) 신라사회의 안정과 전통양식의 확산 = 24
• 2) 후삼국 분열과 전통양식의 변모 = 46
• 2. 고려전기 전통양식의 계승 = 67
• Ⅳ. 新樣式의 成立과 擴散 = 93
• 1. 신양식의 등장 = 93
• 2. 신양식의 정착 = 104
• 3. 신양식의 확산과 변화 = 128
• Ⅴ. 復古樣式의 出現 = 135
• 1. 고구려양식의 모방과 재현 = 136
• 2. 백제양식의 모방과 재현 = 145
• 1) 석탑 = 145
• 2) 석불 = 148
• 3) 조성배경 = 164
• Ⅵ. 高麗前期 佛敎石造美術의 特徵 = 175
• 1. 양식의 계승과 분화 = 175
• 2. 발원자와 장인계층의 확대 = 190
• 3. 조성의 확산과 국가비보사상 = 201
• Ⅶ. 맺음말 = 211
• 【參考文獻】 = 215
• 【表 目 錄】 = 241
• 【揷圖目錄】 = 242
• 【圖版目錄】 = 245
• 【圖 版】 = 251
• 【ABSTRACT】 = 293