朝鮮時代 藥師如來圖 硏究 = A Study on the Bhaisajyaguru Buddha paintings of the Joseon Dynasty

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

Bhaisajyaguru Buddha(藥師如來), the Medicine Buddha, is a Buddha of earthly benevolence who cures suffering and, by extension, lets sentient beings attain the Supreme Knowledge (Bodhi). This is observed in the Great Twelve Vows the Medicine Buddha made when he was in human form (Bodhisattva). It's also in some of the textual finds, of which four manuscripts, including Yaksayurigwangchilbulyeoraebonwonkongdukgyeong, (藥師琉璃光七佛如來本願功德經), have been translated into Korean. This Buddha is, since he lives in the Eastern Paradise, or Pure Lapiz Lazuli, also referred to as "Medicine Master and King of Lapis Lazuli Light."

The belief of the Medicine Buddha, since its introduction into the Korean Peninsula during the Silla period, has constantly prevailed among many Koreans, including loyal families and commoners alike. The first text that tells this is a case from The Heritage of the Three States(三國遺事), Monk Milbon(密本法師) cured ailments of Queen Seondeok(善德女王) and Kim Yangdo(金良圖) by chanting the Yaksagyeong(Bhaisajyaguru Buddha sutra, 藥師經). Impressed by such events, some created many great works of art.

Bhaisajyaguru Buddha is typically depicted holding a medicine bowl(藥器) in his left hand, flanked by two attendant Buddhas, the Sunlight Bodhisattva(日光菩薩) on the left and the Moonlight Bodhisattva(月光菩薩) on the right, and the Twelve divine generals(十二神將) that symbolize the Healing Buddha's each of the Twelve Great Vows. The scene where Bhaisajyaguru Buddha preaches Buddhist teachings is also captured in art paintings, among which only 4 of the Goryeo Dynasty, and 33 of the Joseon Dynasty are remaining.
Paintings of Bhaisajyaguru Buddha are categorized into three types: <Bhaisajyaguru Buddha Triad>, <Bhaisajyaguru Buddha with Flanking Triad and Twelve divine generals> and <Preaching Bhaisajyaguru Buddha>. First, in paintings of <Bhaisajyaguru Buddha Triad> are standing the centralized Bhaisajyaguru Buddha, holding a medicine bowl, and the two attendant Buddhas of the Sunlight Boddhisattva on his right and the Moonlight Bodhisattva on his left. This formation is employed in the 400 Buddhist artworks, although only 4 of them remain today, and another one that dated back to the late Joseon Dynasty.
The next type of <Bhaisajyaguru Buddha Triad and Twelve divine generals> has all the figures from Bhaisajyaguru Buddha to the two attendent Bodhisattvas and their twelve divine generals, so it can pursue fidelity to the Buddhist Scriptures. This style is observed in 2 of the Goryeo period, 5 in the early Joseon, and their successive 3 in the late Joseon.
Last, <paintings of Preaching Bhaisajyaguru Buddha> does not have all the twelve divine generals, or substitutes them with other retinues. Most paintings using this style consist of three panels on one frame--that's why it's called the Painting of the Three Buddhas, or <Sambulhoedo(三佛會圖)>-- rather than of one single panel. The reason for this is that back in the late Joseon, confused with the ideological fusions and the financial hardship derived from frequent wars, most buddhist temples merged Bhaisajyaguru Buddha into their main halls, instead of enshrining him in his own separate one.

In a <Sambulhoedo> are Shakyamuni(釋迦牟尼) in the center, Bhaisajyaguru Buddha on the right of the incense, and Amitabha(阿彌陀) on the left. To wit, the preaching Buddhas are drawn on a single panel at some times, and they are at other times drawn separately on three panels divided on one frame. As those Buddhas start showing themselves, each of the drawings claims more and more space, only to be partially shared on the frame. Unlike the ones in the earlier part of the Joseon period, paintings of Preaching Bhaisajyaguru Buddha created during the later Joseon have Sacheonwang (four maharajas, 四天王), Palbujung (eight supernatural guardians of the Buddha-dharma, 八部衆), disciples, Yongwang (Dragon King, 龍王), and other figures, instead of all the Twelve divine generals.
The records and styles of the Joseon paintings of Bhaisajyaguru Buddha tell that many Buddhist drawings were generated by court painters upon requests by those in the Court. The artists glared the silk canvas using gold powder and, of course being among the finest ones, they were adept at expressing delicacy and excellent composition. The Leeum Samsung Museum of Art and Jijangsa Temple(地藏寺) of Japan each have the <Painting of Bhaisajyaguru Buddha Triad and Twelve divine generals>, portrayed in 1477 and 1551, respectively. The latter one, in particular, is said to have been commissioned by a commoner, and boasts exceptionally outstanding composition and technique used. There are also records that the picture was originally placed in a temple called Jinjeongsa Temple(真淨寺), which is absent in terms of remaining documents, but researchers assume that since the Generals in the picture have red touches at the end of their eyes, this work originated from the Jeollado or Chungcheongdo province, around which Shin Gyeom(信謙), a painter, practiced his artwork.

In the later part of Jeseon period, groups of painter monks played a main role in creating the Buddhist paintings. Members of such groups networked sharing their values, reproducing their own style of painting. In the meantime, the <Painting of Bhaisajyaguru Buddha Triad and Twelve divine generals> in Songgwangsa Temple(松廣寺) illuminates unusual aura, but does not have any associating records that say the time of creation and its author. Still, it can be assumed from its own style that one of themembers of a group led by a painter named Uigyeom(義謙) based in the current Jeollado province, drew this in the early 18th century; Above all, Uigyeom produced many pieces when in Songgwangsa Temple, the pictures mentioned above resemble his works regarding how the faces of Buddhas were depicted, and what colors and designs were employed in both cases. This is the base that many studies proclaims that the Songgwang painting has its root from the Uigyeom-led group back in 1725.

Next, the author looks into the cases where the Buddhist paintings are marked with its regional features, and where they are borrowed or changed. To begin with, the three pieces of Bhaisajyaguru Buddha, presumably created by painters working in the Chungcheongdo province in the late 19th through the early 20th century, employ pretty much the same style. Those three were all titled the <Paintings Preaching Bhaisajyaguru Buddha> created each in Donghaksa Temple(東鶴寺) in 1898, Magoksa Temple(麻谷寺) in 1905, and Ssanggyesa Temple(雙磎寺) of Nonsan in 1923. When people see comparing them, they should know that they all resemble each other concerning the shading and coloring methods that grant visual depth effect on clouds and faces among others. Painters from the Chungcheong province, including Munseong(文性), Jeongyeon(定鍊) and Manchong(萬聰) are such ones that used the same techniques, the regional features.
When it comes to the cases the Buddhist arts are borrowed and changed by communications between painters, an example can be taken from the Painting of Preaching Bhaisajyaguru Buddha in Jeondeungsa Temple(傳燈寺) in Gangwha in 1884, where the Hyeopsi Bodhisattva is described in the sitting position. Its painter Gihyeong(機炯) designed the structure of Jeondeungsa Temple in 1884, and that of Heungguksa Temple(興國寺) of Namyang in 1892, when the Hyeopsi Bodhisattva was expressed in the sitting position. The Heungguksa Temple structure was created not only by Gihyeong, but by Yungam(允鑑), Hyeonjo(現照), Geungjo(亘照), Chango(彰悟), Sanggyu(尙奎) and Geungbeop(肯法) all influenced by their leader Gihyeong, who in concert also created two Hyeopsi Bodhisattvas in the sitting position: one being <Painting of Preaching Amitabhabul> in Cheongryeonsam(靑蓮庵) in 1892; and the other the same titled piece in Suguksa Temple(守國寺) in 1907. These all paintings epitomize the sharing and borrowing of artistic techniques by painters.

Last but not the least, the modern time Buddhist paintings went through new changes in composition part. The <Painting of Preaching Bhaisajyaguru Buddha> in Donghaksa Temple in 1898, for example, has the Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and disciples aligned in circle that tightly fills the frame, while the <Sambulhoedo> in Pyochungsa Temple(表忠寺) of Milyang in 1930 has several circles arranged neatly on the frame.

This study has so far looked in depth at the content of Buddhist Scripts in light of the Joseon paintings of Bhaisajyaguru Buddha, and its style and features.

목차 (Table of Contents)

• Ⅰ. 머리말 = 1
• 1. 硏究目的 = 1
• 2. 硏究內容 및 方法 = 3
• Ⅱ. 藥師如來 信仰과 所依經典 = 9
• 1. 藥師如來 信仰과 起源 = 9
• 1) 史料 = 10
• 2) 作品事例 = 24
• 2. 所依經典과 儀軌集 = 31
• 1) 所依經典 = 31
• 2) 儀軌集 = 37
• Ⅲ. 朝鮮時代 藥師如來圖의 形式 = 41
• 1. 藥師三尊圖 = 41
• 2. 藥師三尊十二神將圖 = 43
• 3. 藥師說法圖 = 50
• Ⅳ. 朝鮮時代 藥師如來圖의 圖像 = 57
• 1. 藥師如來圖 圖像의 構成 要素 = 57
• 1) 藥師如來三尊 = 57
• 2) 十二神將 = 66
• 2. 傳統圖像의 受用과 變容 = 69
• 1) 藥師三尊圖 = 70
• 2) 藥師三尊十二神將圖 = 72
• 3. 새로운 圖像의 摸索과 成立 = 75
• 1) 藥師說法圖 圖像의 成立과 變容 = 75
• 2) 三佛會圖와 圖像의 共有 = 77
• Ⅴ. 朝鮮時代 藥師如來圖의 樣式 = 80
• 1. 朝鮮前記 宮廷畵風의 成立과 擴散 = 80
• 2. 朝鮮後記 畵風과 地域性 = 93
• 1) 새로운 畵風의 成立 = 94
• 2) 畵風의 交流 = 97
• 3) 畵風의 地域性 = 104
• 3. 圖像의 借用과 變容 = 109
• Ⅵ. 맺음말 = 114
• 【參考文獻】 = 119
• 【表 目錄】 = 126
• 【揷圖目錄】 = 127
• 【圖版目錄】 = 128
• 【圖版】 = 131
• 【附錄】 = 155
• 【Abstract】 = 165