西域의 佛敎發展과 交流에 관한 硏究 = 西域的佛敎發展和交流硏究

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

通過實現從印度抵達中國的佛敎交流是經典流通, 僧侶們的活動, 思想的交流等. 而且因爲有这样的交流, 所以西域各國具备佛敎思想中心地的面貌, 因此起到了視空間的架橋作用. 也就是说，佛敎被向中國傳播的背景的同時, 在西域佛敎思想發展以後, 给了中國佛敎發展的很多影响.
向沙漠南道傳播的佛敎思想根據它的傳播路線有差異點. 因为天山南路的情况位于國家間東西交易路上, 可以看到交流作用的一部分的佛敎正在傳播的形式. 反面可以看到沙漠南道的主要國家―Taxila, Kashmir的民族们，一边移動, 一边用和佛敎一起移動的形式建立國家和佛敎的開始. 順着在撱克拉犸干沙漠中間兩条路上，佛敎被傳播的方式有了大的差異.
而且在西域各國家大槪公元前2~1世紀之際, 大部分部派佛敎被傳入. 特別在Kashmir上可以看到說一切有部的發展和通過第4結集『毘婆娑論』的編写, 小乘佛敎更坚固地发展起来了. 而且因为傳播經路的背景, 所以了解了喀什(Kashgar), 庫車(Kucha), 和田(Khotan)的佛敎 也是Kashmir的說一切有部或是Gandhara的輕量部繼統小乘佛敎開始傳播的事實. 这样的Kashmir的佛敎价直取向, 对于西域各國佛敎發展给了很多影响.　到了3世紀 部派佛敎開始孜孜不息的流行.
到現在, 虽然在沙漠南道, 从傳入角度來看, 大乘佛敎發展起來的解看法占優勢, 但是在本文中, 很显明地可以看到小乘佛敎傳入以後, 逐渐大乘佛敎的思想開始出現, 而且对于包括阿彌陀佛和『十誦律』的小乘經律的發展. 不是只是作为思想性的發展就結束了. 因为西域衆多佛塔建立, 僧院的建立, 已成为思想性的根據.
而且可以看到西域各國的僧侶们, 到达karoshti語, Tohwara語, 中文, 學會这些多样的语言. 对于佛敎思想也起到了主導性的作用. 在这絲綢西域內的活動没有停止到了中原. 由于降低了深深根基. 给中国佛敎的發展也帶來了很多影响.
看行像等的記錄時, 在西域各國, 不仅是这样的思想面貌 佛事活動也活跋地發展起來, 或許在西域各國从國王到平民都早已很狂想的了解了佛敎. 中國以“國家佛敎”的形態占据了一部分. 但是在專制王權比佛敎思想占有優勢的中國和其他區域反而佛敎思想占据了很多王權思想.
亦因为以看到西域的僧侶们不仅主導着佛敎思想的流通 卽參与國家主要政策又解決外交性的問題. 所以在國政經營管理方面也看到了力量. 特別, 各國家之間在外交方面, 僧侶们的參与. 不仅眞的了不起, 而且國際形勢相當鮮明地告诉我们在中原各國家眞實地很需要他们.
在Kashmir和喀什(Kashgar)比較晩的時期 亦到5世紀初, 剖派佛敎開始流行. 但是越向東方移動, 大乘佛敎的發展形勢更加活跋. 特別, 在庫車(Kucha)的般若․法華思想的流行, 可以看到卽時期被記錄的關于法顯, 玄奘, 曇無讖等具有小乘一色的庫車(Kucha)佛敎的性格及其他方面. 并且这样的思想的流行, 在文化性的立場也可以看到也可以听到代表性的“彌勒橋脚像”和“二佛竝坐像”. 可以看到法華思想成为起始的这样文化的産物. 連接着从庫車(Kucha)―燉煌(Dunhwang)―雲岡(Yungang)―龍門(Longmen)也形成了越過思想文化性的交流.
和田(Khotan)也是从3世紀中期具有大乘佛敎性性格, 并且从这時期開始. 由于可以說具有大乘佛敎經典的集合所的程度而存有很多大乘經典.
在和田(Khotan)不仅收藏了很多大乘經典, 而且可以看到『華嚴經』的完成. 并且在那个背景下, 在大乘佛敎興起的很多側面當中, 特別强調佛塔思想在『華嚴經』的「淨行品」, 并且可以知道在現存的『華嚴經』完本的语言中, 特別进到了在和田(Khotan)『華嚴經』的完成. 在和田(Khotan)或是文化性的側面 可以看到華嚴思想的流行痕迹, 就是“多佛化現”形式的佛像光背形態. 因此, 卽使有庫車(Kucha)―和田(Khotan)之間的交流. 各自其他思想的發展在文化性的側面也原封不動地仅應出來.
并且得到和田(Khotan)佛敎影响的鄯善國, 在和田(Khotan) 大乘佛敎虽然被傳播. 但是因为內形成思想性的發展之前就滅亡了, 所以可以看到內大乘傳播到这之前, 主要盛行的是持續性的小乘佛敎.
已经学到多样语言西域出身的僧侶们的与众不同的佛敎思想, 给了在中國政治思想, 思想. 文學界的很多影响并同時稳住了汉族的优越思想. 在本文中, 卽可以觀察到对于西域出身的僧侶们比喩竹林七賢, 又西域出身的僧侶们在中國思想界给了急速的影响.
因此, 在北魏, 在成为國家佛敎化的一面, 南方正統的汉族们和西域出身僧侶間之頻繁往來, 他们由于有摆脱汉族優越主義的科程, 所以这个民族熱烈地崇拜佛敎. 可以说是汉族和融合的西域僧侶们共同起到了作用. 在南朝, 卽期間通過摆脱西域―涼州及北中原被吸收的佛敎的影响權, 通海路的印度及Kashmir出身的僧侶们的流入, 大乘佛敎又發展了一層 以後作为正式的宗派佛敎向前發展着.
并且在南北朝時代, 第一次施行的僧官制, 僧主制, 僧正制被形成西域佛敎發展當中的僧正制, 一边傳播, 一边在和北魏國家佛敎的側面及南朝西域的僧正制施行了同一的意義.
并且最早接受西域佛敎的涼州, 卽時候, 作为譯經的中心地起到了硏究作用, 但是在进入北涼之前佛敎經典集合所 或着作为排出譯經者的地區. 實際, 形成譯經的場所应该看到長安.
这样的涼州 因为作为地理性是近接中國的地方, 并有佛敎的性格的譯經, 思想性, 文化性的側面全部比中國的 西域佛敎的性格更接近 所以被看作是作为西域佛敎的範圍必須对待的地域. 这样的西域佛敎之後形成了隋唐時期的佛敎背景之的作用非常很大. 那時对于西域佛敎被印度及中國間架橋役割單純評價了. 但对于西域佛敎的考察还是切實的東西. 思想性的側面或文化性的側面 全部算是繁盛的西域的佛敎 给我们看到了和印度在中國和其他信仰體系一起發展的佛敎的其他模樣. 因此, 对于佛敎思想發展歷史上存在 西域佛敎是那个中心點.

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

The spread of Buddhism from India to China had been carried out through distribution of Buddhist scriptures, monks' activities and exchange of ideologies. During this, the countries bordering on western China took an important part as a bridge. So to speak, they were a background of the spread of Buddhism and further more for its development in this area later had a lot of effects on that in China.
The Buddhist ideas show many differences according to which route they took for moving toward East.
For example, Buddhism was a part of trade items between East and West on Southern Route of Tienshan(天山). On the contrary, as races moved in Taxila and Kashmir, Buddhism also moved along in the southern routes of the desert. Naturally this religion became a supporting ideology of the newly built―up countries.
It is obvious that along the two branches beside Takla Makan Desert, the way of spreading Buddhism also had distinction.
About in 2~1 B.C., most early Buddhist schools were introduced to the western countries. Especially in Kashmir, Hinayana could be firmly formed due to the development of Sarvastivadins and the publishing of Abhidharma―Mahāvibhā?ā―śāstra based on the Fourth Council.
Considering the route, the Buddhist idea in Kashgar, Kucha and Khotan can be assumed to have had some influence from Sarvastivadin of Kashmir or Hinayana related to Sautrantika's system in Gandara. The unique character of Kashmir's Buddhism gave a lot of effects on other nations in western border of China, so the schools had been popular until 3 C.E..
So far the theory that the religion had been developed as Mahayana from the beginning in southern way of the Desert has been the general concept. However, as declared in the article, at first Hinayana was dominant, but it gradually changed into Mahayana.
Hinayana's sacred books such as Abidharma, 「Shi―song―lu(十誦律)」 gave ideological bases on building pagodas and temples in many countries.
It is possible to assume that monks from each countries could take leading part on the flow of Buddhism with learning Kharosto, Tukhara and Chinese. Their sphere of action, which were not limited in western countries, at last had exerted strong influence on Chinese Buddhism.
In those countries, plenty of Buddhist rituals took places as the religion developed itself in ideological way. According to the Xing―Xiang(行像)'s records, from the Kings to the masses, all the people were enthusiastic for this religion. When this tendency went over to China, it was reformed as a type of "national religion".
However, unlike China where the arbitrary monarchy was much powerful than religion, Buddhism was on higher position than royal authority in Western kingdoms.
In other words, monks involved themselves into national policies and took the role of troubleshooter among the nations in West. Their participation on the diplomatic matters was outstanding, consequently the countries keenly required their ability to handle international situations.
In Kashmir and Kashgar's case, many schools had ruled over the countries until early 5C. However, going further to East, Mahayana was flourishing. For instance, the idea of Prajna and Saddharmapundarika which became popular in Kucha was different from Hinayana of Kucha as Fa―Xian(法顯), Xuan―Zhang(玄奘), Tan―Wu―Chan(曇無讖) described. It is well found in many cultural legacies like Mi―ler―Qiao―Jiao―Xiang(彌勒橋脚像) and Er―Fo―Bing―Zuo―Xiang(二佛竝坐像). Not only in Kucha, it spread out to Dunhwang(燉煌), Yungang(雲岡) and Longmen(龍門). And it also remained a lot of cultural creatures from Saddharmapundarika.
Khotan in mid 3C also showed tendency of Mahayana and already possessed a large number of Mahayana sutras.
Moreover Khotan is assumed where the Avatamska sutra was completed.
Regarding an idea admire Pagoda emphasized by "the purifying practice" in Avatamska sutra and the linguistic uniqueness of the currently existing original copy of the sutra, it seems reliable to estimate Khotan as hometown of Avatamska sutra.
Khotan was also culturally influenced by Avatamska idea. As an evidence, nimbi on the Buddhist statues of Duo―Fo―Hwa―Xian(多佛化現) type are found.
However, even though there were some sort of exchanges between Kucha and Khotan, each one's culture contained its own ideological distinction just as it was.
Comparatively Shan―Shan's case was a bit different. Before the religion was firmly formed the nation was collapsed itself, Khotan's Mahayana had earlier spread to this country though. So Hinayana was mostly prevalent in Shan―Shan.
The monks from Western Countries using their fluent language skills and outstanding Buddhist knowledge had not only effected on politics, ideology, literature of China but also kept the idea of "superiority of Han races" down.
As mentioned in the article, Chinese people compared some monks to the Seven Sages of ancient China. Chinese were astonished when they met the dishtinguished barbarians. Because Han people had been thinking such prominent figures could have had existed only in China by then.
Under this circumstance, it is no doubt that the foreign monks influenced a lot on Chinese public thoughts.
When Buddhism became the national religion in North Wei, the original Chinese people in South gradually got out of the superiority idea through the frequent intercourse with other countries.
During all this, they worshiped this new religion. In other words, those monks from far west took an important part on letting Buddhism amalgamate with Han people.
In Southern Dynasty, Mahayana had been developed by the influx of the monks from India and Kashmir using sea routes. As more monks came in, the religion got rid of the characters of the Buddhism from Western Countries and Yangchou, and made a rapid progress to be a main branch.
Sengguanzhi(僧官制), Sengzhuzhi(僧主制) and Sengzhengzhi(僧正制) were initially set up in the time of Northern and Southern Dynasty. They were actually influenced by Sengzhengzhi of Western Countries. They were practiced in the way of national Buddhism in Beiwei(北魏), and used Sengzhengzhi as the same as Western Countries in Southern Dynasty.
Yangzhou(涼州) where Western Buddhism first introduced has been so far assumed as the center of sutra―translating.
However considering the character of Buddhism in Yangzhou, the religion was rather more likely to Western Countries' one than Chinese. Even though this region were geographically closer to China, it had ideological and cultural similarity with Western Countries. Therefore it is more reasonable to see ChangAn(now Xi―An) as the place where all the sutra gathered in and translated before BeiLiang(北涼) stood out.
First, Buddhism from North India became to have differences by the spreading routes ; Southern Route of Tienshan(天山) and the southern routes of the desert.
Second, the idea of the propagated Buddhism was originally same from Sarvastivadins and Sautrantika, but by the routes it spread out, it changed. Prajna―Saddharmapundarika was developed on Southern Route of Tienshan, on the contrary Prajna―Buddhavatamsaka was developed on the southern routes of the desert.
Third, even though the main stream of Khotan Buddhism was Prajna―Buddhavatamsaka, Shan―Shan was fell down before Mahayana gained ground.
Fourth, each school of Buddhism was well mixed with each nation's culture, so culture and ideology grow together.
Fifth, Yangzhou(涼州) absorbed Western Buddhism had been the centre for sutra translaters and Buddhist scriptures until BeiLiang(北涼) set up in West Jin. Mostly the schools related to Zen and precept were popular and later on they wielded considerable influence on Beiwei's Buddhism.
In addition, from the fact that after Yangzhou's Buddhist cultural influence vanished, Chinese Buddhism showed up, Yangzhou's Buddhism should be classified into Western Buddhism.
Lastly, Western Buddhism was not only spread itself to China but also influenced a lot in political, ideological and cultural ways. For instance, Sengguanzhi and Sengzhu·Sengzhengzhi enforced in Late Qin and Northern and Southern Dynasty all had the origins in Western Countries.
The Western Buddhism became a firm base for prosperity of Buddhism in Sui and Tang Dynasties.
The Western Buddhism have been underestimated as a bridge connection India and China until now. But it is necessary for understanding Buddhism in Northwest India and early Chinese Buddhism to inquire closely into the Western Buddhism.
In ideological and cultural aspects, it was built on totally different religious system from India and China. Accordingly the Buddhism in this particular area must be considered as the centre of Buddhist idea development history.

목차 (Table of Contents)

• Ⅰ. 들어가는 말 = 1
• 1. 연구목적 = 1
• 2. 연구방법 및 범위 = 4
• Ⅱ. 傳來期 佛敎의 性格 = 9
• 1. 傳來期 西域의 상황 = 9
• 1) 기원전 西域 各國의 상황과 민족 = 10
• 2) 기원전후 周邊國과의 관계 = 15
• 2. 佛敎의 傳來 = 24
• 1) 沙漠南道의 佛敎傳來 = 25
• 2) 天山南路 交易路의 佛敎傳來 = 34
• 3. 傳來된 佛敎의 性格 = 37
• 1) 天山南路의 佛敎 = 38
• 2) 沙漠南道의 佛敎 = 40
• Ⅲ. 天山南路의 佛敎發展 = 46
• 1. 西域傳에 나타난 各國의 모습 = 46
• 2. 카쉬가르국(Kashgar)의 佛敎 = 51
• 1) 카쉬가르국의 國家發展과 中國과의 관계 = 51
• 2) 카쉬가르국의 部派佛敎發展 = 55
• 3. 쿠차국(Kucha)의 佛敎發展 = 62
• 1) 쿠차국과 中國과의 관계 = 63
• 2) 쿠차국의 大·小乘佛敎 = 66
• 4. 高昌國의 大乘佛敎 = 80
• 1) 高昌國의 國家發展 = 80
• 2) 高昌國의 佛敎發展 = 82
• 5. 西域佛敎文化의 전파 = 87
• Ⅳ. 沙漠南道의 敎學的 特性 = 92
• 1. 카시미르국(Kashmir)의 佛敎 = 92
• 1) 카시미르국과 沙漠南道의 교류 = 92
• 2) 카시미르국의 部派佛敎發展 = 98
• 2. 호탄국(Khotan)의 大乘佛敎 發展 = 107
• 1) 호탄국의 발전과 교류 = 107
• 2) 大乘佛敎 中心의 호탄국 = 111
• 3. 선선국의 佛敎와 그 특징 = 121
• 1) 선선국의 발전과 교류 = 122
• 2) 선선국 佛敎의 특징 = 126
• Ⅴ. 西域과 中國佛敎의 관계 = 131
• 1. 5胡 16國時代 佛敎交流 = 131
• 1) 人物을 中心으로 한 交流關係 = 132
• 2) 佛敎思想의 전파 = 137
• 2. 南北朝時代 佛敎思想交流 = 143
• 1) 南朝의 西域僧侶 활동 = 144
• 2) 北魏佛敎와 西域佛敎 = 153
• 3. 량주불교의 특징 = 165
• 1) 經典流入의 중심지 = 165
• 2) 량주불교의 전파 = 174
• 4. 西域佛敎文化와 中國文化 = 180
• Ⅴ. 결론 = 186
• 圖表 = 193
• 圖版 = 197
• 地圖 = 202
• 참고문헌 = 205
• ABSTRACT = 213
• 中文抄錄 = 219