간다라 佛傳 圖像의 硏究 = (A)study on the iconography of Gandhāran biographical narrative reliefs

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

This dissertation has been made out on the basis of the Korea Research Foundation's project named " A study on the relics in the Gandhara museum" from 2002 to 2005. The relics displayed in the Lahore·Peshawar·Taxila·Swat Dir museums were directly studied, and only a photographing work was performed for relics in the Karachi museum. Moreover a part of relics possessed in the storages at the Swat·Dir museums were able to study. Therefore the main target of this study was relics exhibited in the five museums and the Gandhara relics in the Indian museum at Calcutta and the Chandigarh museum studied on February of 2006 were included as well.
In the 1st chapter, the object, scope, method of study and the history of research in Gandhara art were arranged. The history of research was shown in two aspects; the result of all the researches in Gandhara art and the origin of Mahayana Buddhism.
In the 2nd chapter, the Kushana Empire and the Buddhism were examined. The culture of Gandhara originated from the cultural exchange between the East and the West has a intimate connection with Greek Empire which were settled down after the conquest of Alexandros in the 3th century AD. Therefore the inflow of Greek culture into the Gandhara was mainly discussed through the Greek Empire held power in the northwestern India. In addition, a relation between the Kushana Empire
and Buddhism was considered in Mahayana·Hinayana Buddhism.
Especially the relationship between Mulasarvasfivada(根本說一切有部), closely associated with Kushana Empire, and the Gandhara art was concentrated as a subject.
In the 3rd chapter, the textual scriptures of Buddha's life and the contents of Gandharan biographical narrative reliefs, manufactured on the basis of it, were observed. Not only the relations between the literature of Buddha's life that is closely related to the rise of Mahayana Buddhism and the compilation of scriptures of Buddha's life, but also the scriptures of Buddha's life belonged to the each sect were discussed. Lastly the contents shown on the Gandharan biographical narrative reliefs were arranged into 110 kinds.
In the 4th chapter, the iconography of Buddha's life story was viewed from the diverse sides emphasizing on the arrangement and techniques of the Gandharan biographical narrative reliefs. One was related to the arrangement of stupa and the Gandharan biographical narrative reliefs, and the other was related to the representing technique of the iconography of Buddha's life story.
In the 5th chapter, various iconography of Gandharan biographical narrative reliefs were examined with a classification of Dipankara that is taken a role in connecting the life of Siddhartha and Buddha's life, the period of birth, the period of education, the period of ascetic leaving home, the period of attainment of Great Wisdom, the period of enlightenment, and the period of nirvana. The arts of 'Mara's Attak and the Enlightenment', 'Indra and Brahma Entreat Buddha to Preach', Mahaparinirvana were not mentioned in this chapter since they were separately discussed.
For the 6th·7th·8th chapters, the iconography of 'Mara's Attak and the Enlightenment', 'Indra and Brahma Entreat Buddha to Preach', 'Mahaparinirvana' that are of the greatest importance among biographical narrative reliefs were explained. 'Mara's Attak and the Enlightenment' is the representation for a scene of Buddhahood and this incident serves as a momentum of Buddhism. The iconography of 'Mara's Attak and the Enlightenment' formed in Gandhara became the most typical mudra, and it, therefore, holds important position in the iconography of Buddhism. The iconography of 'Indra and Brahma Entreat Buddha to Preach' is the scene of determination of enlightened Sakyamuni for performing the Law, and this incident receives attention as a start of international religion. The Nirvana indicates a extinct state of lust and it stands for the highest ideal in Buddhism. The fact that Sakyamuni is expressed as a dead person in Gandhara is considered as an significant matter.
In the 6th chapter, the iconography of 'Mara's Attak and the Enlightenment' was examined. The Gandhara scene of 'Mara's Attak and the Enlightenment' was separated into three types mainly by the expression of a pedestal. In other words, the first type is classified when a group of cavalries or the god of the earth is not appeared in front of a pedestal, the second type is when a group of cavalries are shown, and the third type is when the god of the earth is expressed. The main points of difference shown in the iconography of Gandhara 'Mara's Attak and the Enlightenment' compared from the iconography of 'Mara's Attak and the Enlightenment' prevailed in the early stage of ancient India or southern India are Sakyamuni in the earth-touching attitude(Bhumisparsamudra), the appearance of evil spirit in the half thinking posture, a group of cavalries in various shapes, the expression of the son of evil spirit divided into a supporting group of Sakyamuni and a supporting group of evil spirit, and the expression of the god of the earth demonstrating good deed of Sakyamuni in the past life.
The iconography of Sakyamuni in the earth-touching attitude(Bhumisparsamudra) is most remarkable phenomenon. This iconography is believed to be originated from Gandhara and firmly established as the representative mudra for the symbol of Sakyamuni. The buddha statue of Seokguram is also in the earth-touching attitude(Bhumisparsamudra). This posture implies the Buddha's attainment of Great Wisdom against 'Attack by Mara and His Host', and this 'Mara's Attak and the Enlightenment' must have been recognized to people in Gandhara as a one scene of Buddha's life. In spite of the fact that 'Attack by Mara and His Host' and the attainment were separately described in the original scripture and the scripture of Buddha's life, the attainment was symbolized as earth-touching attitude(Bhumisparsamudra) when expressed in the form of art.
In the 7th chapter, the iconography of 'Indra and Brahma Entreat Buddha to Preach' was studied. Here, the iconographic features of the Gandharan sculpture of 'Indra and Brahma Entreat Buddha to Preach' and the regional characteristics of those from Swat, Loriyan Tangai, Peshawar and Taxila were examined. Through the study, following conclusions were derived.
First, the iconography of 'Indra and Brahma Entreat Buddha to Preach' serves as the origin of that of the Buddha Triad. It carries significant situation as representing a transitional expression toward the standard icon of Buddha Triad in the time of Mahayana Buddhism when the idea of Bodhisattva came into being and expanded.
Second, the iconography of 'Indra and Brahma Entreat Buddha to Preach' was used as the earliest image of the Gandharan Buddha. The theme was expressed as the scene of Brahma, the supreme diety of a pagan religion, asking Sakyamuni to preach. It signifies that it was used as an appropriate subject matter to represent Buddha for the first time.
Third, certain features for the iconography of 'Indra and Brahma Entreat Buddha to Preach' were noticed by regional, but the cultural exchange between each regions was not so much revealed.
In the 8th chapter, the iconography of Gandhara Nirvana was studied. The scripture related to Mahaparinirvana and the debates on the death of a Buddhist saint, a form of the iconography of Nirvana and the features according to the trend of Dighanikaya and Mahaparinibbana Sutta were briefly explained. The significant feature of Gandhara Nirvana was the figure of dead body of Siddhartha lying on one side. As a creature of Gandhara along with "Mara's Attak and the Enlightenment' in the earth-touching attitude(Bhumisparsamudra), it is firstly influenced from the expression of dead body in the Western nations, and it gives a considerable influence on the iconography of Nirvana in every country.
The Buddha's life from the birth to the death was focused in the former term of Gandhara Buddhist arts. The main points of Gandhara biographical narrative art were the predicative descriptive expression of Siddhartha's achievement in the certain time, and more than 110 scenes of the biographical narrative reliefs became known.
Gandhara biographical narrative reliefs were significant in the expression of Siddhartha in the form of human being. That is, the symbols of bodhi-tree, throne, wheel of the Law, stupa, footprint were replaced by the images in human forms. This is an epoch-making event for Buddhists in those days and it is considerable change of the iconography of Buddhism.
This phenomenon is attesting to a possibility that the Gandhara biographical narrative reliefs are manufactured regardless of Hinayana or Mahayana Buddhism. Also this kinds of art is significant as the previous stage of transferred forms consisting of 4 scenes or 8 scenes, which become typical forms after the Gupta period.

목차 (Table of Contents)

• Ⅰ. 머리말
• 1. 연구 목적 = 1
• 2. 연구의 방법과 범위 = 7
• 3. 연구사 정리 = 12
• Ⅱ. 쿠샨 왕조와 불교
• 1. 그리스 문화와 불교 = 37
• 2. 쿠샨 제국과 불교 = 44
• 3. 중국 역사서 속의 쿠샨 제국 = 58
• Ⅲ. 佛傳과 佛傳文學
• 1. 佛傳 文學 = 65
• 2. 佛敎 經典과 佛傳 = 72
• 3. 佛傳圖의 내용 = 85
• Ⅳ. 간다라 佛傳圖의 배치와 표현 기법
• 1. 불전도의 배치 = 93
• 2. 불전도의 표현 기법 = 131
• Ⅴ. 간다라의 佛傳 圖像
• 1. 前生期의 불전 도상 = 143
• 2. 誕生期의 불전 도상 = 148
• 3. 修學期의 불전 도상 = 158
• 4. 出家 修行期의 불전 도상 = 170
• 5. 敎化期의 불전 도상 = 181
• Ⅵ. 간다라의 降魔成道 圖像
• 1. 경전과 降魔成道 = 199
• 2. 인도의 降魔成道 圖像 = 204
• 3. 간다라 降魔成道 前의 佛傳 圖像 = 221
• 4. 간다라 降魔成道의 형식 = 231
• 5. 간다라 降魔成道의 도상 특징-魔王과 魔衆 = 245
• Ⅶ. 간다라의 梵天勸請 圖像
• 1. 불교 경전 속의 梵天勸請 = 259
• 2. 도상 특징 = 281
• 3. 지역별 특징 = 295
• Ⅷ. 간다라의 涅槃 圖像
• 1. 불교 경전과 涅槃 = 322
• 2. 『디가니까야』 「대열반경」과 간다라 涅槃 美術 = 337
• 4. 간다라 涅槃 圖像의 특징 = 365
• 5. 간다라 涅槃圖의 형식 = 419
• Ⅸ. 맺음말 = 435
• 부록 = 437
• 도판목록 = 453
• 참고문헌 = 463
• ASTRACT = 501