朝鮮時代 觀音圖像과 信仰 硏究 = (A)study on belief and iconography of Avalokite´svara in the Joseon dynasty

다국어 초록 (Multilingual Abstract)

Belief in Avalokiteśvara played an important role in promoting Buddhism throughout Korean society during the Joseon Dynasty and earlier. Its study is focused on Joseon Buddhist paintings and the publication of Buddhist texts related to Avalokiteśvara.
Avalokiteśvara is considered the incarnation of the Mercies standing next to Amitābha. If one thinks about Avalokiteśvara, calling Avalokiteśvara's name with one's whole heart and all one's energy or imagines Avalokiteśvara in one's mind, one can be delivered from sufferings such as illness, live in hope, and see wishes come true. This belief was already prevalent in the Three Kingdoms Period (三國時代), continued through the Koryŏ and Joseon dynasties, and persists to this day.
There was strong belief in the coming of Avalokiteśvara, and this is apparent in Koryo Buddhist paintings. A number of Avalokiteśvara iconographies were also variously done in the Joseon Period.
Avalokiteśvara in Koryŏ Buddhist painting is generally shown standing next to Amitābha or as the Individual Being. Among the extant paintings, Water-Moon Avalokiteśvara (水月觀音) reflects the beliefs of the ruling class of Koryo the strong characteristic shape of the Avatamsaka Pure Land (華嚴淨土) shown as the Avalokiteśvara Pure Land (觀音淨土). That is, the Water-Moon Avalokiteśvara painting particularly addresses the Entry into the Realm of Reality (入法界品) of the Avatamsaka Sūtra (華嚴經), with special emphasis on the practical side of the Pohyon-haengwonpoom (普賢行願品). It is meaningful that the production of Water-Moon Avalokiteśvara introduces to us Avalokiteśvara as the Individual Being, who is not standing next to the Amitābha.
Here, it is notable that the Lotus Sūtra by Kye-Hwan, who gives explanatory notes to the Sūtra (戒環解 法華經), appears in the late Koryŏ Dynasty. This marks a watershed in the history of Buddhism. The main concepts of Buddhism are of great importance not only with regard to Avatamsaka ideas but also Lotus ideas. Lotus ideas are important in Lotus rites (法華儀式), the written copies of the Lotus Sūtra (法華經 寫經), and in the readings of the Sūtra in the early Joseon Dynasty.
The importance of the Lotus Sūtra derives from the divine power of Avalokiteśvara. It is especially important with regard to overcoming the everyday trials of poverty, disease, and misfortune, etc. Water-Moon Avalokiteśvara iconographies are influenced by the belief. Other works include the Entry of Skanda (韋駄天), showing the simplicity of a transparent veil and a frontal view of Avalokiteśvara, not in profile. Not only does Avalokiteśvara promise a better daily life, anyone during the Joseon period was able to benefit from Buddhism, despite the oppression of Buddhism by a government that had a strong Confucian (儒敎) orientation. Widespread belief in the Lotus Sūtra meant the generalization of Avalokiteśvara thought.
In a society that was in a state of upheaval, the common people needed to believe in a powerful, intimate being. In a country impoverished by the two wars (壬辰倭亂, 丙子胡亂), they avidly sought objects of faith in the religion and had even greater belief in the Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva.
The symbolic and mystic Collection of Mantras (Dharani Chinon-chip : 陀羅尼 眞言集) was published and included numerous Buddhist paintings for prayer to Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva. We know that most Buddhist books on Avalokiteśvara, which are extracted from old book lists of several university libraries, include Dharani Chinon-chip. Buddhism in the late Joseon Dynasty did not entail abstruse religious doctrine, and this allowed it to become widely practiced among the common people. They could easily read the Dharani Chinon-chip. Furthermore, the internalized recognition of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva through Dharani Chinon-chip is apparent in artistic presentation; i.e., Buddhist paintings.
In the late Joseon Dynasty, an increasing number of common people took part in Buddhist works, for example, building towers, temples, publishing Sūtras, and doing paintings. They wanted to express the beliefs as iconographies, and this led to the creation of free compositions and new iconographies of Buddhist painting. This explains the great variety and diversity of 317 Avalokiteśvara iconographies extracted from "Buddhist Paintings of Korea" (韓國의 佛畵). Avalokiteśvara as the Individual Being also has iconographic characteristics different from those of the early Joseon Dynasty. We can see the background of the abridged Avalokiteśvara Pure Land and the shape of the huge White Clothed Avalokiteśvara (白衣觀音). It is notable that a gigantic image of Avalokiteśvara is painted on the other side, the back of main Buddha statue. We can point out the changes of developed Buddhist rites, the publication of Dharani Chinon-chip, and the widespread belief in it in the late Joseon Dynasty. This highlights the increasing importance of Esoteric Buddhism (密敎的 佛敎) to the iconography of the Water-Moon Avalokiteśvara with both the Avatamsaka (華嚴) and the Lotus (法華).
In the Joseon Dynasty, Buddhists thought they could share the divine power of Avalokiteśvara through paintings of Avalokiteśvara iconography and the publication of Dharani related to Avalokiteśvara. The Avalokiteśvara iconography developed to painting, reading Dharani developed to Buddhist music. Furthermore, these works took the role of folk art and had positive influence on it. This was a result of the very Great Mercy, Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva’s nature.

목차 (Table of Contents)

• Ⅰ. 序 論 = 1
• 1. 문제 제기와 연구사의 검토 = 1
• 2. 연구 방법과 범위 = 8
• Ⅱ. 朝鮮前期 觀音圖像과 信仰 = 11
• 1. 高麗後期 觀音圖像의 정립과 觀音信仰 = 11
• (1) 觀音圖像의 유형과 樣式的 특징 = 12
• (2) 觀音圖像의 신앙적 배경 = 21
• 2. 朝鮮前期 觀音圖像의 유형과 觀音信仰 = 30
• (1) 觀音圖像의 유형 분류 = 32
• (2) 觀音圖像의 신앙적 배경 = 44
• Ⅲ. 朝鮮後期 觀音 關聯 佛書의 刊行과 觀音信仰 = 51
• 1. 觀音 관련 佛書의 간행 = 51
• (1) 陀羅尼·眞言集 및 儀式集 = 53
• (2) 靈驗傳 및 기타 佛書類 = 66
• 2. 觀音信仰의 유행 = 70
• Ⅳ. 朝鮮後期 觀音圖像과 信仰 = 78
• 1. 圖像의 유형과 觀音像의 다양한 수용 = 80
• (1) 脇侍佛로서의 觀音圖像 = 83
• (2) 獨尊으로의 觀音圖像 = 111
• (3) 甘露幀에서의 觀音圖像 = 119
• 2. 朝鮮時代 觀音圖像의 불교사적 의미 = 124
• (1) 朝鮮佛畵의 양식 변천 = 124
• (2) 觀音圖像 변화의 의미 = 131
• Ⅴ. 結 論 = 137
• □ 參考文獻 = 141
• □ 圖版目錄 = 154
• □ 圖版 = 159
• □ 附錄 = 183
• □ Abstract = 207