國際貿易과 經濟發展

林種哲 서울大學校商科大學 韓國經濟硏究所 1974 經濟論集 Vol.13 No.1

戰後 韓國農地改革에 관한 一考察

鄭英一 서울大學校商科大學 韓國經濟硏究所 1967 經濟論集 Vol.6 No.2

韓國의 經濟成長 雇傭 및 賃金

邊衡尹 서울大學校商科大學 韓國經濟硏究所 1967 經濟論集 Vol.6 No.3

經濟發展과 利子 및 利潤에 관한 一考察 : 古典學派理論을 中心으로

尹埴 서울大學校商科大學 韓國經濟硏究所 1967 經濟論集 Vol.6 No.4

經濟學에 있어서의 要因分析의 適用

邊衡尹 서울大學校 商科大學 韓國經濟硏究所 1966 經濟論集 Vol.5 No.2

Ⅰ. Preface Factor analysis method, which is an applied branch of mathematics, was devised by J. C. Spearman in 1904, and grew up in this century with the field of psychology. It is increasingly being adopted by other fields, such as economics and sociology. In economics it is applied in economic growth or economic development theory. The present author is especially interested in the latter applications. But before examining the core of the problem, it may well examine factor analysis itself. And R. Stone's 1947 paper, which deals with the application of the factor analysis to statistical technique, and which is the basis of T. Kloek and L. B. M. Mennes' most advanced paper of the field, is useful for understanding the implication of factor analysis method. In this paper, therefore, I introduce factor analysis first, examine Stone's paper next, and then M. Megee's paper and I. Adelman and C. T. Morris' paper on the applications of factor analysis to economic development theory. Ⅱ. Factor Analysis Factor analysis method is applied to economics in the form of principal component analysis which was devised by Hotelling to deal with the problem of factor analysis in psychology. By principal component or factor analysis we try to answer the question: Is it possible to analyze a set of variables into a more fundamental set of independent components (or factors) possibly fewer in number? Which portion of the total variance can be accounted for by each component? Here, Hotelling's method of solution is introduced, Assume that we want to replace a set of standardized variables ?? (i=1, 2, …, p) by a more fundamental set of variables ?? (i=1, 2, …, p ), such that z=Ku, where z is a p-component column vector, K is a p × p matrix of coefficients, and u, a p-component column vector. The components ?? are principal components and are orthogonal to each other. We want to maximize the contribution of the fist principal component u₁:i.e., maximize S₁, ??=??,?? under condition that R=KK′ where R is a p×p symmetric matrix of correlations between the variables ??; and K´,the transpose of K. Here it is found that the solutions of ???are the components of eigenvector of matrix R corresponding to the largest eigenvalue λ₁of that matrix multiplied by the square root of λ₁.Similarly we can find second component (or factor), third component, and so on. Ⅲ. On Application of Factor Analysis to Statistical Technique. R. Stone has applied the method of factor analysis or principal components to national income data of American economy taken from the years 1922-38. Here seventeen variables are reduced to three factors and these three factors together account for more than 97 per cent of the total variance of all variables. Moreover, the three largest factors can tentatively be identified with income ( or output ), rate of changes of income, and time trend respectively. T. Klok and L. B. M. Mennes have, in their 1960 paper, furthered Stone's analysis and give new economic meaning to that method. Ⅳ. On Application of Factor Analysis to Economic Development Theory, I. M. Megee's paper purposes to discuss the usefulness of mathematical model for analyzing problems of economic growth on the one hand, and to analyze briefly the findings from some particular implementations of factor analysis with the hope of discovering some advantages, disadvantages, and implications for the use of the method in economic growth analysis and planning for future growth on the other. Our interest is in the latter. She introduces three techniques: R, Q, and M-techniques. These there techniques provide the means of testing three kinds of hypotheses related to economic development: R can test hypotheses about variables causing economic development, using the factor loadings ; Q can test hypotheses regarding the area differentiation of patterns of economic development, using the factor scores; and M can test hypotheses involving changes of variables or regions over time. Although it is quite useful for testing hypotheses, factor analysis is also considered as an ideal way of exploring the unknown without the necessity of assumptions. It is possible to construct a large data matrix of economic and social variables and run factor analysis without any a priori assumptions. But it has some problems in the construction of an economic development matrix. A major problem is lack of availability of data for desired information categories, resulting in their omission from the study. Another major problem is that of subjectivity, the selection of variables, the naming of the factors, the delineation of economic and social regions and the choice of the factor analysis method itself all introduce a certain amount of subjectivity into the analysis, though it would seem to be less encumbered by restrictions than is multiregression analysis. Unlike other multivariate techniques, factor analysis cannot show inter- and intra-regional structure and flows, though some can be inferred from Q-technique. The most important use of factor analysis for the social scientist is to isolate important or strategic variables for further study and to eliminate extraneous information. And factor analysis model can be used to identify and measure the relative importance of certain sectors of the economy as well as to indicate regional differentiation. Ⅴ. On the Application of Factor Analysis to Economic Development Theory, Ⅱ In their paper, I. Adelmen and C. T. Morris attempt to gain some semiquantitative insights into the interaction of various types of social and political changes with the level of economic development. For this purpose the techniques of factor analysis are applied to per capita GNP and to twenty-two indexes representing the social and political structure of seventy-four less developed countries in the period 1957-62. And to see the regional differences in the interrelationship between per capita GNP and sociopolitical influences the countries are divided into three groups: African countries, Near Eastern and Far Eastern countries, and Latin American countries. In their analysis, the remarkably high percentage of intercountry variations in the level of economic development (66%) are associated with differences in non-economic characteristics. And a strong association was derived between per capita GNP (or the level of economic development ) and two aspects of sociopolitical change: the socio-cultural concomitants of the industrialization-urbanization process (Factor I) and the Westernization of political institutions (Factor Ⅱ). In contrast, a rather weak relationship appears between per capita GNP and indicators summarizing the character of leadership (Factor Ⅲ) and the degree of social and political stability in the past decade ( Factor Ⅳ) . In addition, the results of regional studies indicate that Factor I is overwhelmingly important for low income economies in which the absorptive capacity is sharply limited by the inhibiting nature of the social structure. However, even among countries at higher stages of evolution, the social variables remain the most important element associated with intercountry differences in per capita GNP. As for factor Ⅱ, it is of negligible importance at the early stages of development. This result probably arises because both the ability to generate sustained economic growth and the evolution of more sophisticated political institutions require fundamental changes in mentality characteristic of Western thought pattern. And at the last part of the paper they emphasize that the relationships found between levels of economic development and differences in social and political structure are neither caused nor causal. Ⅵ. Conclusion As M. Megee points out, factor analysis has deficiencies such as lack of availability of data for constitutions of factor matrix, incorporation of subjectivity, and impossibility of showing inter-and intra-regional structure and flows. And in the application of tactor analysis to economic development theory, there are many to-be-solved problems: we must construct matrices to find weights for variables on economic development; incorporate political, social and psychological variables into the study of economic development ; and vary the numbers and kinds of variables. Further, this analysis is a laborious method because of complexity in calculation and is subject to the type of computer. But this analysis is as Megee says, useful for isolation of important or strategic variables for further study, and for elimination of extraneous information at an initial stage of research. This is the most important use of factor analysis for the social scientist. And it is also a merit of factor analysis that it is a highly complex model which can incorporate many more variables than the ordinary sorts of models constructed for dealing with economic problems. In Korea, econometric studies are beginning to be applied to real problems. In these studies efficient model building is the most important process. Here factor analysis method may function usefully. And it may be thought that economic forecasting will be more accurate with the use of factor analysis. In Korea, more attention is paid to the gross national product or per capita GNP. But there have been no attempts similar to Adelman and Morris'. It may be a valuable attempt to examine how much per capita GNP is influenced by noneconomic or political and social factors. Further, the method can suggest something about treatment of noneconomic factors in econometrics. Therefore, a proper study on factor analysis is much required in Korea.

마케팅機能에 관한 分析的 硏究(序說) : 특히 企業目的과의 關聯下에서 Especially Relating with the Business Objective

金元銖 서울大學校 商科大學 韓國經濟硏究所 1966 經濟論集 Vol.5 No.3

Ⅰ. Preface The functional approach of marketing had been adopted prevailingly in the earliest study of marketing, while the system and classification of these functions are seemingly not escaped from the realm of ambiguity and disorder. The proper reason why marketing students could not develop the widely approved coherent system on marketing function, was solely depending upon the lack of complete recongnition of the nature of these heterogeneous and inconsistent group of activities. Since marketing functions are the activities performed by a business enterprise in order to get a creative adaptation to its changing environment, it usually tends to be differentiated according to its environmental characteristics, because it has a feature of controllable means of the business enterprise. On a common sense in economic history, it is a fact that the business enterprise has been emerged in economic society since capitalistic mode of production prevailed. Therefore, it is natural that the assumption on business enterprise that is designed to make a profit, are generally approved by marketing student as a basic concept. And thus most of students are considering that the business enterprise has a only one profit-seeking objective. When we start on studying the marketing function, hence, we could not deny the influence of this pseudo-economic theorem which usually hammers our frame of logical reasoning. Therefore, I dare to try to reflect the meaning of this pseudo-economic theorem in order to get rid of these boundaries of thinking frame. In this sense, this article intends to analyze the marketing functions with the heaviest emphasis on the interrelation between these functions and objective of business enterprise. Ⅱ. What is Business Enterprise As a preliminary process of studying the marketing functions, it is necessary to work out for new concept-buliding of the business enterprise, since that is a component of whole function of business enterprise. The conceptual work for business enterprise must start with realtion to the essence of economy. Because enterprise is an organ of economic society in a social sense, as well as an economic existence for profit-making in an individual sense. Hence it enjoys the dual existence in this economic society; the social one, as a producing institution of the want-satifying materials, that is, products, and the individual one, as a profit-seeking organization for the entrepreneur (it might be well to include the manager and employee under the system of absentee ownership.) The essence of the both economies just above mentioned are consisted of the phenomena or activities of acquiring and utilizing the want-satisfying materials for the satisfaction of the want of haman beings. Here, we cold recognize that there are two main subfunctions of economies, the one is an acquirement of goods and, the other, utilization of goods, that is, production and consumption. At the earliest ancient days, these two subfuctions were integrated into the single economic subject. This means that there would be no such fact as the segregation of producer and consumer was materialized. This system is usually referred as self-want-satisfying-economy. When human beings, however, could not satisfy sufficiently their own want with their produces, they learned the advantage of specialzation and exchange of the produces. Thus, the division of labor, in a social sense, has segregated the single economic subject to specialized economic subjects, that is a producer and a consumer. As a natural consequence of the preceding reasoning, I dare to define that the business enteprise is an economic institution having dual existence, and is formed though the process of simultaneous, but double formation, namely, both in social and individal. The one is the social formation of business enterprise in an abstractive way. It will be formed when entrepreneur bears the function of social production (for others, not for himself ) which had been departed from the producer-consumer, as a full time business. This business enterprise itself was designed to devote to profit-making, but its production and distribution functions in a social sense are not performed for the attainment of profit objective. These functions are performed unconsciously by the entrepreneur as a tool of profit-making. Social formation of the business is realized automatically when its individual formation is completed. Usually enterpreneurs did not know the significance of contribution to the social formation by his own individual economic activities. The other is the individual or realistic formation of business enterprise. This is a sensible and concrete one in reality. It is only after entrepreneurs make up his mind to make a profit through the repetitive production and marketing of goods which could satisfy the wants of the others, not himself, and they invest their accumulated capital, that enterprises have been formed. When individual business is established, the business enterprise in a social sense, is simultaneously formed and functions as a socio-economic institution. And thus, individual business activities are filtered through the wall between an induvidual existence and a social one and bocomes to exert a social influence or effect on the social economy. Ⅲ. The Objectives of Business Enterprise Needless to say, the businesse enterpris has a dual existence. It must be able to satisty the want of different economic subjects, that is, consumer and businessman. The activity of satisfying the consumers want becomes a social objective because the function of the business production has segregated from consumers and entrusted to producers. The other activity for the satisfaction of entrepreneur or business participants compels to attain the purpose of the profit-seeking and it becomes individual or profit objectives. Though satisfaction of want means same economic activity in economics, but in a specific sense it differs each other. The one is acquirement of physical products for others, namely, for market, whereas the other is to make a profit, or to earn surplus for entrepreneurs themselves. For this reason, business enterprise should accomplish its dual objectives by the effort for single profit-seeking, because the individual business enterprise produces "the others-want-satisfying materials" for sale to get a profit. These two objectives usually conflicts each other. The reason for this conflict lies in the egoism of the human beings. Entrepreneur, as a profit-seeker, usually sells his product for the highest price possible to earn higher margins, but consumer resists and reacts to these entrepreneurial behavior, because of the unfitness of goods sold to his own wants. It might be assumed that the production ought to be done for the members of society, not for business alone. These two objectives might be synthesized in one term, long-term profit maximization It means business enterprise should enjoy the long-term existence on the good will of the consuming public and get a reasonable profit which corresponds to its cost of social function and of innovation. Ⅳ. The Differentiated Business Pattern under Different Economic Environment Essentialy, the business enterprise is destined to carry out these two business objectives in good harmony, but in the fromer days the different socio-economic conditions have allowed the business a chance of pursuit of one-sided business objectives, especially that of the profit-seeking. As a matter of fact, according to the meaning of business enterprise which has been conceptualized through preceding discussion, it is true that the ever- changing pattern of business enterprise is the one managed under the purpose of balanced fulfillment of its dual objective. The frequent referrings to social responsibilities of business enterprises seem to have an objective ground on this fact, not on an ethical one. Most of the entrepreneurs, from ancient to present-day, however, have been making their effort only for the pursuit of individual economic objective as a natural consequence of making adaptation to its environment which allows the possibility of sole profitseeking. ? For the purpose of empirical study of this topic, I have made a try, in turn, to construct the model for testing the relation between the business patterns and its economic surroundings. It is a graph composed of two output curves, production and marketing which plots the volume according to its time series. Ⅴ. The Relation Between the Function of Marketing and Business Objective The synthesized, essential business objective is long-term profit maximization. According to accounting system, business profits are calculated by minusing the business cost form business revenue. The business revenue is earned by the sale of the produced goods, and in a quantitative terms, it is accounted by multi- plying the unit price to the number of the product sold. Thus, sales targets essentially coincides with the business objective in the long run. Modern businesses used to rely on the increasing of sales volume in order to get more revenues, not on the price-up. For this reason, mass production be- comes general business mode and the business grows larger and larger and it follows that mass marketing is an essential characteristics of modern business. Ⅵ. The Relation Between the Function of Marketing and Production Production function is a physical manufacturing process in a factory, and the aim of production lies in the manufacturing of the products which are destined to be sold. It might be naturally assumed that the purpose of production itself is to manufacture the physical stock. This function begins with physical raw materials and ends with physical products. If producion function is to be performed, it is necessary that the decision, on what and how much products should be produced must be made up by entrepreneurial function. The problem of what products is relation to the qualitative production and how much product, to quantitative production. These functions have an attribute of marketing. The former is known as consumer, product research, and product planning and the latter, as sales forecasting and marketing planning. These functions might he called as leading marketing-functions. The product specification which decides the form, disign, size and color, etc. of products is prepared by former function, and the production order which regulates the scale and size of production, by latter one. Of course these functions are well known as a part of marketing functions. Once after these functions are performed, physical production activities are carried out by employee with the raw material through technical process, and at the end it produces the products coherent to the requirement of product specification and production order. And thus the stock of physical products neaped in the warehouse is to be sold, it is necessary of the performance of lagging marketing function. The products processed under the manufacturing engineering, would possess a value emdodied through the process of manufacturing and the value is an ability of physical and psychological satisfaction of consumers' want rather than that of producers. Consequently, it is possible to define that the qualitative leading marketing-function is a function of visualizing the product in imaginative process through translating the psychological want of consumer into physical form, and production is a function of making up the physical product which is equivalent to imaginative form of physical product. Ⅶ. The Anaysis of Marketing Functions The Defintion Committee on Marketing terms of American Marketing Association has defined that the marketing function is a major specialized activities performed in marketing, but its report have pointed out that there are still chaoses in marketing functional studies. It goes on ; there is no generally accepted list of marketing functions, probably those most generally recognized are transportation or traffic management, storage, market financing, risk management, selling, grading, assembling, standardization and buying. Merchandising is sometimes included in the list although many students regard it as a broader function lying between marketing and production. Some of these activities are broad business functions having special marketing implications, others are peculiar to the marketing process. In the first category are traffic management, market financing and risk management, in the second group are buying, selling and assembling. Under this form students of marketing have sought to squeeze a heterogeneous and inconsistent group of activities. For example, the functions of assembling and dividing, if such functions exist, are performed through buying, selling and transporting. Grading, standardization, and packaging are adjuncts of selling, such functions as assembling, storage, and transporting are broad general economic functions, while selling and buying are essentially individual in character. All these discrete groups we attempt to crowd into one class and label "marketing functions." If we take account of this comments, we may easily find that there is an ambiguity and disorderness in marketing functional studies. Consequently, it is natural to do a work for reclassifying the heterogenous and inconsistent group of activity into the objective and coherent system. It may be broadly classified into two categories: socio-economic distribution function and a managerial marketing function. Though the former is performed unconsciously by a business enterprise, it functions automotively as a coordinator of a social ecoonmy. The economic distance can be bridged by the performance of this function. The kind of economic distance and the functions correspending to it, are as follows: 1. Personal (title, ownership) distance∼exchange 2. Place 〃 ∼transportation 3. Time 〃 ∼storage 4. Qualitative 〃 ∼exchange 5. Quantitative 〃 ∼exchange 6. Communication 〃 ∼communication The latter one is motivated purposedly by a entrepreneur for the attainment of business profit, and E. D. Mcguarry illustrates one of the possibilities of classifying it, such as 1. Contractual ∼selling, buying, 2. Merchandising ∼product planning or merchandise selection 3. Pricing 4. Propaganda∼sales promotions, a part of personal selling, advertising 5. Termination∼sales, delivery, packaging, collecting, service A tentative trial system of my own classification is as follows, 1. Leading marketing functions ⑴ Qualitative leading function∼the function relating to product ⑵ Quantitative leading function∼the function relating to sales potential 2. Lagging marketing function ⑴ Sales promotion function∼advertising and sales promotion ⑵ Sales disposal function∼delivery, contract, collect and service Ⅶ. A Modern Comprehension of Marketing Process Leading functions are performed in advance of physical production and it directs the orientation of both qualitative and quantitative production. In other words, leading marketing functions have a role of standard in the production process. Thus the leading function exerts an influence on production stage in order to have product to be fit to the consumers' want and set the volume of products. Therefore, the costs of these leading functions are transformed into the value of product itself. we may conclude that the leading function differs functionally from the lagging one, because the latter is originally performed after the physical production has fulfiled. Both leading marketing function and production function are interrelated each other and regulate the phsical production process and render the product a marketing push power. This is equivalent to the pull power of the consumer. This push power means the degree of physical realization of consumer's want satisfying power by a business enterprise. Ⅸ. The Analysis of the Functioning Process of Lagging Function The lagging function is performed after the physical production and comprised by the sales promotion function and the sales disposal function. The latter is to be performed whenever transactions are made. For example, contractual, delivery, collection, service, packaging and packing, etc. Sales promotion activities are the function of facilitating the marketing in a business sense, but it is possible to imagine that it is a function of facilitating the buying function through giving a impact to a consumer. Therefore this function is performed when the push power of the product is weak, that is, when the pull power of the consumer is weak, sales promotion activities are done in order to sell the product to the consumer though cultivating the consumer pull power. If we introduce numerical terms, such as percentage, say, the push power of the product is 80 % and hypothetical maximum limit is 100%, hypothetical conclusion is that it is necessary to perform the sale promotion activities equivalent to 20% of pull power. Because, in a psychological engineering process, sales promotion activities exert its influence only through the gradual psychological change of the mind of the consumer ; that is, attention, interest, desire, memory or conviction and action. Ⅹ. Conclusion This hypothetical and exploratory studies cast a light on the problem of defining the business enterprise as a existence relating without any ism or age. Hence, according to this hypothetical frame of business enterprise, the essential character of the business enterprise would be more clearly closed up and then it will devote to facilitating the comprehension of the mechanism and patternal features of modern business enterprise. And the ever-changing, essential business patterns would be enable us to pick out the reason why specific patternal life of business enterprises of some ages were a natural consequence of adaptation by that business enterprise to its specific surroundings. It seems probable that this tentative work for searching the essence of the business enterprise will give the possibilities of theorizing the knowledge system of innovated one about business and the marketing, and this innovated system of knowledge would be valuable to deduct the type and the kind of the patternal life to-be of future business enterprise.

韓國의 經濟成長過程에 있어서의 國民所得構造 變動에 關한 硏究

李賢宰 서울大學校 商科大學 韓國經濟硏究所 1968 經濟論集 Vol.7 No.1

韓國經濟와 地域構造 : -國土綜合開發의 基本的構想을 爲한 序說-

吳萬植 서울大學校 商科大學 韓國經濟硏究所 1963 經濟論集 Vol.2 No.1

The over-all programs for land development means the plans which aim at the utilization, exploitment and conservation of national land in view of the all-round measurements in economic, social and cultural spheres. The natural conditons and the policies of the government should be considered in these programs in order to secure reasonable location of industries and to elevate social welfare. Such programs cannot help duplicating its importance in have-not nations, especially in Korea, which is poor both in resources and in its utilization. It has repeatedly been pointed out that the gulf in income between the advanced region and the backward still remains in Korea as one of the vivid marks of dual structure of economy and this gulf will probably grow severer in the process of economic growth. In Je-Joo province, for example, yearly per capita income is ￦ 32,341 which is only 73% of average income and 38% of that of Seoul. The density of population in South Korea is greater than in the North and it is Kyung-Gi and Kyung-Nam districts that are more thickly populated than the rest of the provinces and their demand for farm products is great. It can be said that the production of staple farm products was, to a certain extent, specialized by regional group; that is, the chief producing districts of staple grains are Chun-La, Choong-Nam, Kyung-Sang and Kyung-Gi province, being Kang-Won, Kyung-Buk and Je-Joo province, those of miscellaneous grains. In order to investigate industrial structure of our country, we must first of all examine the main resources and public facilities which provide the sound ground of industries. The total sorts of underground mineral resources in Korea amount to 200 sorts, among which 50 sorts have been exploited and 7 sorts are principal ore. But it is a matter for regret that we have lost most of our underground resources by the division of our fatherland; only 0.1% of total iron ore stock, 0.5% of bituminous coal, 2.3% of anthracite, and 21.5% of tungsten and molybdenum are what South Korea has. The goal of land development Direction of industrialization and regional arrangement: As the industrialization of our country has been centred only around the existing industrial districts, it has revealed its hidden shortages such as in water, land, transportation and others. Under these conditions, it is rather natural that the industrial districts are crowded and consequently efficiency of investment has been declined. Now we suggest the policies for industrial development as follows. A) The decentralization of industries should intensively be begun with the most effective district and then the lesser, by considering the efficiency of capital and making the best use of regional resources. B) In cultivating the large industrial districts, it is highly required not only to plan the fitted type of industry, proper size of population and the demand and supply of labour forces, but also to concentrate government investment in order to erect the necessary establishments. Goals of development in Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing: A) Agriculture a) The basic problems of agriculture lie in increasing production. For this purpose we must extend the utilization of land and rationalize the land distribution. b) The selected expansion of crops to keep up with the change in demand structure. c) Bringing waste land under cultivation, improvement of seeds and extermination of vermin damage. B) Forestry a) The nation-wide movement to inspire the interest in forest conservation. b) The afforestation works supported by government budget. c) The strict restriction of felling licence and measures for substitutions for wood fuel. C) Fishing a) Promotion of shipbuilding industry to secure the fishing boat. b) Building and improvement of fishing ground. c) Price stabilization through the arrangement of intermediate mechanisms. The goal of city development a) The existing establishments in over-crowded cities should be decentralized with a view to eliminate the disutilities as possible and over concentration of industries or population should strictly be checked and public facilities and urban area should be rearranged so that the functions of city may be performed smoothly. b) The area which is projected as a large scale of industrial place should be attached to every rearranged district.

株式會社의 機關에 關한 硏究 : 韓國商法上의 問題點을 中心으로

崔基元 서울大學校 商科大學 韓國經濟硏究所 1968 經濟論集 Vol.7 No.2

韓國의 勞動市場構造

裵茂基 서울大學校商科大學 韓國經濟硏究所 1971 經濟論集 Vol.10 No.3