The Balance Between Data Flow and Privacy

Timothy J. Toohey 서울대학교 공익산업법센터 2013 경제규제와 법 Vol.6 No.1

The trade-off between privacy and free Internet services in the United States (US) continues to evolve in a complex legal environment. Unlike many other countries, the US lacks a comprehensive or baseline privacy and data protection regime and instead relies on piecemeal legislation regarding certain sectors, such as health care or financial institutions. This paper examines several aspects of the evolving US privacy debate in the context of the history of the Fair Information Practice Principles (“FIPPs”) first articulated in 1973. The FIPPs, which gave rise to a “notice and consent” regime that attempts to adjust the balance between individuals and the enterprises that collect information about them, continue to influence privacy discussions and proposals, as seen by current US privacy proposals. Although the FIPPs never gave rise to comprehensive legislation in the US, they have formed the basis for enforcement by the Federal Trade Commission (“FTC”), which is the US agency charged with consumer privacy matters. Utilizing its broad powers, the FTC has taken numerous actions against prominent companies that are alleged to have misrepresented their policies regarding protection of personal data. The FTC’s enforcement actions have raised the profile regarding privacy in the US and helped fill the void caused by the absence of comprehensive privacy legislation. They have also influenced two major federal privacy proposals in 2012. The first of these - Consumer Data Privacy in a Networked World by the Obama Administration - proposed a consumer privacy bill of rights for online activities based on a modified version of the FIPPs. The White House report suggested rights of individual control, transparency, respect for context, security, access and accuracy, focused collection and accountability that would be incorporated into voluntary codes of conduct enforced by the FTC. The second proposal - Protecting Consumer Privacy in an Era of Rapid Change from the FTC -- similarly does not propose specific legislation, but instead encourages companies to develop “best practices” to make “privacy the ‘default setting’ for commercial data practices” to give consumers greater control over the collection and use of their data. The FTC’s proposal encourages adoption of principles of “privacy by design” simplified consumer choice and transparency in data collection practices and is meant as a possible template for legislation. Developing and implementing a comprehensive privacy regime in the US continues to face many challenges. First, the US law generally does not recognize monetary value in a consumer’s personal data to allow for damages in a civil lawsuit. There is also considerable debate as to whether a consent-based regime based on the FIPPs remains viable in the Internet era, where individuals readily provide personal information in return for free services. Finally, there is major opposition to privacy legislation from companies with vested financial interests in the status quo that profit from use of consumers’ personal information. Notwithstanding these challenges, it is likely that pressure for adoption of baseline privacy protections in the US will continue to grow given consumers’ concerns with the use of their personal information online, evolving expectations regarding privacy because of rapid technological change, and the need for interoperability and consistency of privacy protections in an increasingly interconnected world.

[번역문] 정보유통과 프라이버시의 균형

Timothy J. Toohey,김태오(역) 서울대학교 공익산업법센터 2013 경제규제와 법 Vol.6 No.1

미국에서 프라이버시와 무료 인터넷 서비스 간의 상충은 계속해서 복잡한 법적 상황으로 발전하고 있다. 다른 대부분의 국가와는 달리, 미국은 포괄적 또는 기본적인 프라이버시 및 정보보호 제도가 없는 대신, 보건 또는 금융제도와 같은 일부 영역에서의 부분적인 입법에 의존하고 있다. 이 논문은 미국에서 전개되고 있는 프라이버시에 대한 논쟁의 다양한 측면을 1973년에 처음으로 표현되었던 ‘정보처리의 공정성 원칙(Fair Information Practice Principles, 이하 ‘FIPPs’)’의 역사적 관점에서 검증하도록 한다. 개인과 개인에 관한 정보를 수집하는 기업 간의 균형을 꾀하려 했던 “고지 및 동의(notice and consent)” 제도를 탄생시킨 ‘정보처리의 공정성 원칙(FIPPs)’은 오늘날 미국에서의 프라이버시에 관한 법안에서 목격되듯, 프라이버시에 관한 논의에 계속적인 영향을 행사하고 있다. 비록 ‘정보처리의 공정성 원칙(FIPPs)’이 미국에서 포괄적인 입법에까지 이르지 못하였지만, 소비자의 프라이버시 문제에 관한 임무를 담당하고 있는 ‘연방거래위원회(Federal Trade Commision, FTC)’의 집행 기반을 형성하였다. FTC는 자신의 광범위한 권한을 활용할 수 있었기 때문에, 개인정보 보호에 관한 기업의 정책을 잘못 표방하였다는 의심을 받는 유명 기업들에 대해 여러 조치를 취하였다. 이러한 FTC의 집행조치는 미국에서의 프라이버시에 대한 윤곽을 형성하였으며, 포괄적인 프라이버시 입법의 공백에 기인한 공간을 메우는데 도움을 주었다. 또한 ‘정보처리의 공정성 원칙 (FIPPs)’은 2012년 연방의 두 가지 주요 입법안에 영향을 주었다. 두 가지 주요 입법안 중 하나는 오바마 정부의 Consumer Data Privacy in a Networked World인데, 이 입법안에서는 ‘정보처리의 공정성 원칙(FIPPs)’의 수정판으로서 온라인 활동에 대한 ‘소비자 프라이버시 권리장전(consumer privacy bill of rights)’을 제안하였다. 백악관 보고서는 개인의 통제권, 투명성, ‘전후사정(context)’, 보안, 접근, 그리고 정확성의 존중을 제안하였고, FTC가 시행하는 ‘자율적인 행위준칙(voluntary condes of conduct)’에 포함되기도 하는 책임성과 정보수집에 중점을 두었다. 두 번째 안은 FTC의 Protecting Consumer Privacy in an Era of Rapid Change인데, 이 안은 백악관 태도와 마찬가지로 구체적인 입법을 제안하지는 않은 대신, 소비자에게 자신의 정보수집 및 활용에 대한 더 큰 통제의 여지를 부여하기 위해 기업들로 하여금 영리적 정보처리 관행에 있어 ‘기본으로 제공되는 조건(default setting)’으로 “모범관행(best practice)”을 발전시키도록 장려하고 있다. FTC의 안은 소비자 선택 및 정보수집 관행의 투명성을 단순화시킨 “privacy by design”의 수용을 장려하고 있는 바, 이는 입법이 가능한 본보기임을 의미한다. 미국에서 포괄적인 프라이버시 제도를 발전시키고 시행하기에는 계속해서 다음의 난관에 봉착하게 된다. 첫째, 미연 방법은 일반적으로 민사소송에서의 손해배상을 위한 소비자 정보의 금전적 가치를 인정하지 않는다. 또한 ‘소비자 프라이버시 권리장전(consumer privacy bill of rights)’의 기초를 이루는 동의에 기반한 제도가, 개인이 무료 서비스의 대가로 손쉽게 개인정보를 제공하는 인터넷 시대에 실행 가능한 것인지와 같은 다수의 논쟁도 존재하고 있다. 마지막으로, 소비자 정보로부터 현재 이득을 얻으며 기득의 금전이익을 가지는 기업은 프라이버시 입법에 대한 주요 반대자이다. 이러한 난관에도 불구하고, 미국에서 프라이버시 보호 기본법제의 도입에 대한 압력은, 온라인에서의 개인정보 이용에 대한 특정 소비자의 우려, 급속한 기술 변화에 따른 프라이버시에 대한 기대의 증가, 그리고 점점 서로 연결되어 가는 세계에서 프라이버시 보호의 상호호환 가능성과 지속성에 대한 요구를 계속해서 높일 가능성이 크다.

Dependence of SOA oxidation on organic aerosol mass concentration and OH exposure: experimental PAM chamber studies

Kang, E.,Toohey, D. W.,Brune, W. H. Copernicus GmbH 2011 Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Vol.11 No.4

<P>Abstract. The oxidation of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) is studied with mass spectra analysis of SOA formed in a Potential Aerosol Mass (PAM) chamber, a small flow-through photo-oxidation chamber with extremely high OH and ozone levels. The OH exposure from a few minutes in the PAM chamber is similar to that from days to weeks in the atmosphere. The mass spectra were measured with a Quadrupole Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (Q-AMS) for SOA formed from oxidation of α-pinene, m-xylene, p-xylene, and a mixture of the three. The organic mass fractions of m/z 44 (CO2+) and m/z 43 (mainly C2H3O+), named f44 and f43 respectively, are used as indicators of the degree of organic aerosol (OA) oxidation that occurs as the OA mass concentration or the OH exposure are varied. The degree of oxidation is sensitive to both. For a fixed OH exposure, the degree of oxidation initially decreases rapidly and then more slowly as the OA mass concentration increases. For fixed initial precursor VOC amounts, the degree of oxidation increases linearly with OH exposure, with f44 increasing and f43 decreasing. In this study, the degree of SOA oxidation spans much of the range observed in the atmosphere. These results, while sensitive to the determination of f44 and f43, provide evidence that some characteristics of atmospheric OA oxidation can be generated in a PAM chamber. For all measurements in this study, the sum of f44 and f43 is 0.25 ± 0.03, so that the slope of a linear regression is approximately −1 on an f44 vs. f43 plot. This constancy of the sum suggests that these ions are complete proxies for organic mass in the OA studied. </P>

No difference in factual or conceptual recall comprehension for tablet, laptop, and handwritten note-taking by medical students in the United States: a survey-based observational study

Warren Wiechmann,Robert Edwards,Cheyenne Low,Alisa Wray,Megan Boysen-Osborn,Shannon Toohey 한국보건의료인국가시험원 2022 보건의료교육평가 Vol.19 No.-

Purpose: Technological advances are changing how students approach learning. The traditional note-taking methods of longhandwriting have been supplemented and replaced by tablets, smartphones, and laptop note-taking. It has been theorized that writing notesby hand requires more complex cognitive processes and may lead to better retention. However, few studies have investigated the use oftablet-based note-taking, which allows the incorporation of typing, drawing, highlights, and media. We therefore sought to confirm thehypothesis that tablet-based note-taking would lead to equivalent or better recall as compared to written note-taking. Methods: We allocated 68 students into longhand, laptop, or tablet note-taking groups, and they watched and took notes on a presentation on which they were assessed for factual and conceptual recall. A second short distractor video was shown, followed by a 30-minuteassessment at the University of California, Irvine campus, over a single day period in August 2018. Notes were analyzed for content,supplemental drawings, and other media sources. Results: No significant difference was found in the factual or conceptual recall scores for tablet, laptop, and handwritten note-taking(P=0.61). The median word count was 131.5 for tablets, 121.0 for handwriting, and 297.0 for laptops (P=0.01). The tablet group hadthe highest presence of drawing, highlighting, and other media/tools. Conclusion: In light of conflicting research regarding the best note-taking method, our study showed that longhand note-taking is notsuperior to tablet or laptop note-taking. This suggests students should be encouraged to pick the note-taking method that appeals mostto them. In the future, traditional note-taking may be replaced or supplemented with digital technologies that provide similar efficacywith more convenience