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Tokens and Writing: The Cognitive Development
Denise Schmandt-Besserat 훈민정음학회 2009 Scripta Vol.0 No.1
The paper analyses the development of the power of abstraction as illustrated by the evolution of counting in the ancient Near East. Tokens indicate that counting was first done concretely in one-to-one correspondence. The clay tokens, that appeared in the Near East about 7500 BC, abstracted the goods they represented. For example a cone abstracted a measure of grain. About 3300 BC, when tokens were kept in envelopes, markings on envelopes abstracted the tokens held inside. Abstract numbers are the culmination of the process, following the invention of writing.
Tokens in China, Europe and Africa - The Significance
Denise SCHMANDT-BESSERAT 훈민정음학회 2012 Scripta Vol.0 No.4
Over the last decades, excavators in various parts of the world, in particular China, Europe and Africa, have reported finding clay tokens similar to the Near Eastern counters, forerunners of the cuneiform script. In this paper I will argue that the ubiquity of geometric counters for counting in one-to-one correspondence highlights 1) a fundamental aptitude of the human mind; 2)the unique contribution of the Mesopotamian Uruk state administration that developed the system into writing.